GIFT  or 

Publisher 


\ 


THE  TEXTBOOK 


_^r^^ 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •    BOSTON  •   CHICAGO  •   DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •   SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •   BOMBAY  •   CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


THE    TEXTBOOK 

HOW   TO    USE    AND 
JUDGE    IT 


BY 


ALFRED   LAWRENCE    HALL-QUEST 

PROFESSOR   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION   AND 
DIRECTOR   OF  SCHOOL  AFFILIATION 

UNIVERSITY   OP  aNCINNATI 

AUTHOR   OF    «« SUPERVISED   STUDY" 

EDITOR   OF  SERIES  ON   SUPERVISED   STUDY 


NeiD  gorit 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1920 

jUI  rights  reserved 


f/ 


Copyright,  19x8, 
Bv  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  September,  19x8. 

fiDUGATlON  ifeWi 


J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  dc  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Masa.,  U.8.A. 


DEDICATED 

TO  THE    MEMORY 

OF   MY   SISTER 

HORTENSE 


PREFACE 

In  presenting  this  discussion  on  the  Textbook  to  the  school 
public  I  confess  to  a  considerable  amount  of  fear  and  trembling, 
not  unlike  that  of  the  pioneer  who  penetrates  the  dark  un- 
known wilderness,  or  of  him  who  manipulates  his  acids  and 
compounds  in  the  search  for  some  chemical  truth.  I  have 
sought  in  vain  for  any  treatment  of  this  subject  in  book  form. 
After  wrestling  with  the  problem  for  many  months  I  have 
grounds  to  suspect  the  reasons  for  no  earlier  attempt  having 
been  made  to  organize  the  various  aspects  of  this  subject  into 
some  sort  of  unified  study. 

I  shall  anticipate  the  critic's  attack  by  saying  that  I  know, 
perhaps  better  than  he,  the  limitations  of  my  effort.  My  real 
purpose  in  offering  the  book  to  school  administrators  and 
teachers  is  to  arouse,  if  possible,  someone  among  them  to 
construct  a  volume  on  the  textbook  that  will  be  more  adequate 
than  my  own  attempt.  Graduate  students  will  find  many 
fascinating  problems  in  this  field.  Every  teacher  who  shares 
the  responsibility  of  selecting  texts  must  feel  the  thrill  of 
exploration  in  this  almost  untouched  department  of  instruc- 
tion. There  are,  to  be  sure,  many  studies  on  the  textbook 
being  made  by  committees  assigned  the  difficult  task  of 
recommending  suitable  school  books  in  the  various  subjects ; 
but  many  of  these  lie  undiscovered  in  the  offices  of  school 
superintendents,  and  have  not  been  made  available  beyond 
the  school  system  immediately  concerned  in  their  use. 


viii  Preface 

In  this  book  I  have  sought  to  analyze  as  simply  and  com- 
prehensively as  possible  the  reasons  for  the  prominence  of  the 
textbook  in  American  education.  The  history  of  the  textbook 
is  one  of  those  uncultivated  fields  of  research  that  awaits  the 
magic  touch  of  deep  scholarship.  Administrative  considera- 
tions of  the  textbook  are  so  closely  allied  with  some  of  the  most 
delicate  situations  in  the  management  of  public  education, 
that  I  have  found  it  difficult  to  do  justice  to  some  of  the  moot 
questions  involved  in  this  aspect  of  the  subject.  The  experi- 
enced school  official  will  be  able  to  read  more  between  the  lines 
than  in  the  type  itself.  The  textbook  as  a  tool,  as  a  source 
of  knowledge,  as  an  interpretation  of  truth,  as  a  guide,  and  as 
a  means  of  inspiring  in  the  pupil  a  will  to  learn  Unks  up  very 
closely  with  my  view  of  education  as  a  means  of  training  the 
pupil  to  study.  I  do  not  minimize  any  of  the  great  move- 
ments that  now  occupy  the  attention  of  educational  leaders. 
The  problems  of  education  are  so  immense  and  so  numerous 
that  they  must  be  viewed  from  several  angles.  One  of  these 
points  of  view  is  supervised  study  or  the  provision  in  each  class 
period  for  a  certain  amount  of  training  in  how  to  study.  Skill 
in  handling  the  textbook  is  just  as  important  as  skill  in  hand- 
ling the  tools  in  manual  training  or  household  arts.  It  is  not 
the  only  tool  for  the  mastery  of  the  abstract  subjects.  There 
are  others  equally  important,  but  in  this  volume  I  have  con- 
fined my  efforts  to  the  textbook. 

It  is  with  the  hope  that  school  administrators  and  teachers 
will  find  in  the  following  pages  some  few  suggestions  pointing 
the  way  to  a  larger  study  of  this  whole  subject  that  I  venture 
to  offer  these  pages  for  their  perusal  and  criticism.  The 
material  grows  out  of  a  course  of  lectures  that  I  had  the  privi- 
lege of  delivering  before  the  Teachers  Association  of  Rochester, 


Preface  ix 

New  York.  What  I  then  said  regarding  the  textbook  seemed 
to  meet  with  a  response  so  cordial  that  I  have  thought  other 
teachers  might  find  in  such  a  discussion  points  of  contact  with 
problems  of  their  own. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  my  colleagues,  Miss  Frances 
Jenkins  and  Dr.  Cyrus  D.  Mead,  for  permission  to  use  some  of 
the  material  that  they  helped  to  evolve.  The  members  of 
my  Seminar  on  Secondary  Education  have  rendered  willing 
and  efficient  service,  and  to  them  I  express  sincere  acknowl- 
edgments. To  Dean  W.  P.  Burris  of  College  for  Teachers 
of  University  of  Cincinnati,  I  am  grateful  for  a  critical  reading 
of  most  of  the  manuscript.  For  whatever  there  may  be  in 
the  volume  that  has  merit  I  am  indebted  to  the  many  whose 
names  are  scattered  throughout  the  pages  that  follow.  The 
sins  of  commission  and  omission  are  my  own. 

A.  L.  H. 

University  of  Cincinnati, 
January  4,  1918. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PACE 

The  Textbook  —  Its  Place  in  Modern  Education  .  .  .  .  i 
The  Textbook  as  a  Problem  for  Investigation ;  a  suggested  course 
on  the  textbook.  Why  is  the  Textbook  so  Prominent?  The 
Inadequacy  of  the  Textbook ;  the  objections  considered.  Why 
Textbooks  Exist;  i.  They  are  a  compact  arrangement  of  educa- 
tional material.  2.  They  serve  as  ready  reference  books  later 
in  life.  3.  They  provide  for  a  uniform  education  throughout 
the  country.  4.  They  make  possible  an  orderly  pursuit  of  the 
course.  5.  They  are  a  definite  help  to  correct  studying.  6.  They 
supply  directions  for  applying  the  subject.  7.  They  record  subject 
development.  8.  They  help  to  determim  the  various  levels  of  school 
systems  atid  the  progress  of  the  pupils.  Summary.  Questions  and 
Problems.    References. 

CHAPTER   11 

A  Bkief  History  or  the  Textbook 14 

The  Need  for  a  History  of  the  Textbook.  Medieval  Text- 
books. The  Renaissance  Textbooks.  Textbooks  in  Colonial 
America;  only  a  few  books  available;  the  religious  character  of 
early  American  schools  and  texts.  Early  Spelling  Books;  con- 
tents of  early  spellers.  Grammars,  Arithmetics;  characteristics  ^ 
of  early  arithmetics.  Algebra.  Geography.  Languages.  His- 
tory. General  Criticism  of  Early  American  Schoolbooks.  The 
Rapid  Increase  of  Textbooks.  Simimary.  Questions  and 
Problems.     References. 

CHAPTER   III 

The  Textbook  —  Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply    .       .       .    43 
The   Textbook   Defined.    Kinds  of   Textbooks;    Magogines, 
General  literature:   classification  on  the  basis  of  style.    The  Free 


xii  Table  of  Contents 


Textbook;  general  distribution  of  free  texts.  The  Advantages 
of  Free  Textbooks.  The  Disadvantages  of  the  Free  Textbook. 
Uniform  Textbooks;  arguments  J  or  and  against  uniformity. 
The  Cost  of  Textbooks ;  cost  of  making  textbooks :  cost  of  textbooks 
to  the  citizen:  convenient  method  of  introducing  free  texts.  State 
Publication  of  Textbooks.  Summary.  Questions  and  Prob- 
lems.   References. 

CHAPTER  IV 

The  Selection  and  Judging  of  Textbooks 73 

Selection  of  Textbooks,  the  Business  of  Experts.  The  Book- 
man a  Valuable  Servant  of  Education.  Methods  of  Adoption. 
When  Textbooks  Should  Be  Adopted.  How  Texts  Begin  To  Be 
Written.  The  Selection  of  Textbooks.  Standards  of  Judging 
Textbooks  in  Cincinnati ;  Illustrations  of  Some  Principles  in 
Textbook  Making.  History:  vocational  mathematics :  civic  biology. 
Other  Standards  for  Judging  Textbooks;  Specific  Standards 
for  Arithmetic  Texts.  The  Forsythe  Plan ;  Cincinnati  Standards 
in  Arithmetic.  Klapper's  Standards  in  Arithmetic.  Smith's 
Standards.  Geometry.  Dlustrations  of  Modern  Texts  in  Arith-  ^ ' 
metic.  Texts  in  General  Mathematics.  Qualities  of  Textbook 
in  Chemistry  and  Physics.  Geography  Standards  in  Cincinnati 
Standards  for  Readers.  Standards  in  Spelling  and  Language. 
Phanixville,  Pa.,  Cincinnati.  Suggestive  Standards  for  History 
Texts.  Textbooks  in  Foreign  Language.  Various  Standards 
Suromarized.  Summary.   Questions  and  Problems.  References. 

CHAPTER   V 

The  Textbook  as  a  Tool     .        . 12a 

The  Importance  of  Knowing  One's  Tools.    Aids  to  Study  in 
Textbooks.     I.   Suggestions  by  the  Author.    The    Syllabus; 

The  syllabus  preceding  the  chapter;  illustrations ;  The  summary  or 
syllabus  that  follows  the  chapter;  illustrations.  Questions  and 
Problems  following  each  chapter;  illustrations.  Summaries 
throughout  the  chapter  and  at  its  close ;  illustrations  of  intra- 
textual  summaries.  References  for  additional  reading.  Illus- 
trations; examples  of  textbook  illustrations  in  history,  language, 
science;    Maps;     Diagrams.     Summary.     II.    Suggestions    by 


Table  of  Contents  xiii 

PAOI 

THE  Teaches.  Evaluated  Assignments.  Explanation  and  In- 
terpretation. The  Open  Book.  Summary.  III.  Reactions 
BY  THE  Pupils.  Underscoring ;  Notations  on  inserted  pages, 
fly  leaves.  "  Cross  References."  Summaries.  The  Care  of 
the  Book.    Summary.    Questions  and  Problems.    References. 

CHAPTER   VI 

The  Textbook  as  a  GmDE 157 

The  Functions  of  the  Textbook  as  a  Guide.  A  Guide  to  Refer- 
ence Reading.  The  Study  of  the  Dictionary.  A  Guide  to  Cor- 
relation. A  Guide  to  Applications.  The  Topical  Assignment. 
A  Guide  to  Reorganization.  Summary.  Questions  and  Prob- 
lems.   References. 

CHAPTER   VII 

The  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  Knowledge 167 

How  Ejiowledge  Began.  The  Meaning  of  School  Subjects. 
Principles  underlying  the  use  of  the  textbook  as  a  source  of 
knowledge.  Some  of  the  Gains  of  Thinking.  The  Paramount 
Question  of  Education  To-day.  Knowledge  must  be  viewed  as 
a  system.  Three  Ftmctions  of  the  Textbook.  Important  Factors 
in  the  Structure  of  the  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  Knowledge. 
Pates  of  publication.  The  title  of  the  book.  Table  of  Contents 
and  the  Index.  The  arrangement  of  material.  Summmry. 
Questions  and  Problems.    References. 

CHAPTER   VIII 

The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth  .        .183 

The  Observation  Point  of  Knowledge.  The  Necessary  Bias 
of  A  Textbook.  Factors  of  Interpretation.  Knowing  the  author 
and  the  publisher.  The  Preface.  The  Introduction.  Book 
Reviews.  The  evaluation  and  adaptation  of  subject-matter ;  Scales 
and  standards.  The  Elementary  Subjects:  American  History. 
Arithmetic.  Spelling.  Language  and  Grammar.  High  School 
Subjects:  Algebra.  Texts.  Geometry.  Trigonometry.  Solid 
Geometry.       Limits.      Texts.      General  Mathematics.    Zo9logy. 


xiv  Table  of  Contents 


Criteria  for    Science  Texts.    General  Science    Texts,     History. 
Summary.     Questions  and  Problems.    References. 

CHAPTER  IX 

The  Textbook  as  an  Incentive  or  Inspiration  ....  230 
The  Inspirational  Review.  The  purpose  of  the  review.  Pre- 
senting educational  value  of  the  course,  fostering  enthusiasm  for  the 
course,  constructing  a  background.  Summary.  Method  of 
Teaching.  Reviewing  of  related  experience;  inspirational  previews 
in  textbooks.  Energetic  first  impression.  Outlining  the  term*s 
work.  Simmiary.  General  Summary.  Illustrations.  Class- 
room technic.    Questions  and  Problems.    References. 


Appendix 


247 


Index 257 


THE  TEXTBOOK 


TEXTBOOK,  HOW  TO  USE  IT  AND 
JUDGE  IT 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   TEXTBOOK  — ITS   PLACE   IN   MODERN   EDUCATION 

The  Textbook  as  a  Problem  for  Investigation.  In  these 
days  when  every  part  of  the  school  system  is  undergoing 
supervision  and  criticism,  and  when  reorganization  is  the  cry 
of  the  hour,  there  is  great  need  of  a  thoroughgoing  examina- 
tion into  the  intricate  problem  of  the  textbook.  It  is  in  the 
textbook  that  one  expects  to  find  the  essentials  of  a  subject, 
the  general  outline  of  a  course.  The  teacher  and  the  textbook. 
are  the  two  pillars  of  instruction.  Each  without  the  other 
is  inadequate,  as  a  rule.  Educators  and  school  administrators 
have  begun  to  ask  serious  questions  of  textbook  makers,  for 
the  maker  of  textbooks  is  one  of  the  most  influential  forces 
in  the  shaping  of  educational  poUcy.  The  need  has  been 
felt  of  late  for  courses  on  textbook  making,  to  be  given  in 
schools  of  education.  So  far  as  the  writer  knows  there  is  no 
course  of  this  kind  offered  in  any  of  our  colleges  or  universities. 

A  suggested  course  on  the  textbook.  Such  a  course  on  the 
textbook  might  embrace  the  following  topics:  The  History  of 
Textbooks;  Current  Scope  of  Subject-Matter  in  Textbooks; 
Organization  of  Textbook  Material  from  the  Standpoint  of  Child 


2  Textbook,  Scnbto  Use  It  and  Jtidge  It 

and  of  Adolescent  Psychology;  Arrangement  of  Material  with 
Directions  for  the  Proper  Studying  of  It;  How  to  Frame  Ques- 
tions in  Textbooks  and  to  Select  Problems  of  Application; 
Methods  of  Gathering  Material  for  the  Textbook ;  How  to  Pre- 
pare the  Manuscript  for  the  Publisher ;  Methods  of  Publication ; 
Compensation  of  authors ;  Revisions ;  Collecting  Reviews ;  Stand- 
ards for  Judging  Textbooks.  Running  through  the  course  would  be 
repeated  references  to  the  Psychology  and  the  Pedagogy  of  Reading. 

With  the  growth  of  the  need  of  textbooks,  their  variety, 
their  frequent  revisions,  and  the  consequent  extension  of  the 
publishing  business  with  its  plans  of  marketing  and  of  seeking 
adoptions,  many  difficult  problems  have  arisen.  Various 
schemes  of  publication  are  being  tried.  The  methods  of 
textbook  distribution  are  being  carefully  considered.  So 
large  is  the  place  occupied  by  the  textbook  in  American  educa- 
tion that  wise  counsel  and  dispassionate  investigation  are 
imperative  if  results  for  the  best  progress  in  the  schools  are 
to  be  expected. 

Why  Is  the  Textbook  So  Prominent?  Among  the  questions 
that  must  be  considered  is  the  reason  for  the  prevailing  promi- 
nence of  the  textbook  in  the  public  schools  of  America. 
Some  writers  on  this  subject  believe  that  if  there  were  a  larger 
percentage  of  highly  trained  teachers  in  the  American  school 
there  would  be  correspondingly  much  less  need  of  the  school 
book.  This  seems  to  imply  that  in  the  hands  of  the  many 
inadequately  trained  teachers  the  textbook  becomes  a  mere 
crutch  or  a  model.  The  teacher  depends  on  the  book ;  its 
organization  and  its  contents  are  followed  in  minute  detail. 
No  one  who  understands  school  conditions  will  deny  the  truth 
of  this  criticism.  It  would  be  unfair,  however,  to  assign  the 
V   chief  reason  to  the  large  number  of  insufficiently  trained 


lis  Place  in  Modern  Education  3 

teachers.  Doubtless  the  best  teacher  in  the  public  school 
profits  by  the  use  of  a  text.  In  fact,  without  a  good  text- 
book the  course  would  be  much  more  laborious  and  much  less 
effective.  Furthermore,  much  of  the  difl&culty  in  entrance 
requirements  lies  in  the  lack  of  organization  of  the  new 
courses.  The  most  liberal  friends  of  modem  school  subjects 
will  admit  that  many  of  these  courses  are  still  so  indefinite 
in  scope  and  sequence  of  material  that,  for  administrative 
purposes,  it  is  very  difficult  to  adjust  them  to  needful  order 
and  system  in  even  a  flexible  scheme  of  entrance  requirements. 
President  Thwing  calls  the  textbook  a  teacher  of  teachers. 
By  means  of  a  text  or  several  texts  the  teacher  introduces  the 
pupil  to  a  world  of  knowledge  he  little  suspected.  It  is 
through  the  windows  of  the  textbook  that  teacher  and  pupil 
glimpse  the  immensities  of  truth,  stretching  as  far  as  intellect 
and  dreams  can  penetrate.  Not  that  this  is  the  only  outlook, 
but  it  is  indispensable,  at  least  in  American  education.  A  few 
years  ago  an  EngUsh  writer  made  the  following  observation :  ^ 

The  method  of  actual  teaching  in  American  schools  differs 
much  from  that  in  use  in  England.  It  centers  in  the  textbook. 
Nothing  strikes  an  English  teacher  more  forcibly  on  first  listening 
to  lessons  in  American  schools  than  the  important  place  the  text- 
book takes.  .  .  .  The  success  of  the  method  is  aided  in  America 
by  several  conditions,  as  yet  rare  in  England.  First,  the  textbooks 
are  much  better  than  ours.  .  .  .  Often  a  teacher  in  England  can- 
not make  her  pupils  depend  upon  themselves  for  getting  up  a 
subject,  because  the  only  textbook  that  can  be  afforded  is  meager 
or  even  obsolete ;  and  she  is  the  only  person  who  has  access  to  a 
really  good  book. 

» Quoted  from  Chas.  H.  Thurber  on  "What  about  Textbooks?"  Outlook, 
Sept.  13,  1913. 


4  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

The  Inadequacy  of  the  Textbook.  It  is  now  being  advo- 
cated by  many  educators  that  teachers  should  break  away 
from  slavish  dependence  upon  the  textbook,  and  should  plan 
courses  that  include  much  supplementary  material  and  many 
books.  All  of  us,  doubtless,  would  agree  that  it  is  no  longer 
advisable  to  use  only  one  book  as  a  text  or  to  follow  this  one 
blindly.  But  it  would  be  equally  unpedagogical  to  abandon 
this  aid  entirely  in  all  courses.  Here  as  elsewhere  moderation 
and  rational  selection  are  most  important.  It  is  well,  how- 
ever, to  bear  in  mind  the  criticism  formulated  by  Charles 
McMurry.^ 

1.  The  textbook  cannot  give  adequate  treatment  of  important 
topics. 

2.  It  cannot  easily  set  up  problems  and  give  fit  suggestions  to 
their  progressive,  independent  working  out. 

3.  The  reflective  tracing  out  of  relations  in  which  a  central 
topic  stands  to  other  topics,  gained  through  causal  connection, 
comparisons  based  on  likeness  and  contrast,  and  other  forms  of 
association  —  this  considerate  balancing  up  and  organizing  of 
thought  material  can  be  done  very  inadequately  in  a  textbook 
treatment. 

These  defects,  however,  are  not  necessarily  inherent  in  the 
nature  of  textbooks.  They  doubtless  exist  but  they  need  not 
continue  to  do  so.  If  by  "  adequate  treatment  of  important 
topics  "  is  meant  adequate  for  the  pupil  at  any  particular  stage 
of  educational  development,  then  this  defect  could  be  removed 
by  a  careful  evaluation  of  material  based  on  a  sound  doctrine 
of  educational  values.  If  by  "  adequate  "  is  meant  a  large, 
comprehensive  treatment,  then  we  find  this  possible  through 

» Conflicting  Principles  of  Teaching,  Houghton  Miflflin  Co.,  1914,  p.  86. 


Its  Place  in  Modern  Education  5 

the  author^s  additional  reference  material  and  suggestions 
for  study.  Even  if  it  were  possible  to  have  a  comprehensive 
and  well-unified  discussion  of  any  one  topic,  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned if  this  would  be  wise.  Beyond  a  consideration  of  cer- 
tain fundamentals,  the  textbook  should  be  mainly  suggestive. 

The  second  objection  has  already  been  met  in  many  of  the 
most  recent  textbooks.  Their  problems  and  suggestions  for 
independent  study  are  much  better  than  could  be  devised  by 
many  teachers.  But,  granting  the  validity  of  Dr.  McMurry's 
objection,  it  may  still  be  doubted  if  the  textbook  should  be 
exhaustive  in  these  problems  and  directions.  Necessarily, 
they  are  given  in  limited  number,  but  this  need  not  be  regarded 
as  a  defect.  One  must  still  expect  the  teacher  to  apply 
educational  material  to  local  needs  and  local  conditions,  and 
to  adapt  source-material  to  educational  ends. 

The  third  objection  is  most  searching.  No  textbook  can 
perform  the  processes  of  thinking.  But  under  the  direction 
of  a  teacher  who  knows  the  psychology  of  study  it  is  possible 
to  find  causal  connections,  to  make  comparisons  and  contrasts, 
and  in  general  to  carry  on  the  process  of  organization.  This 
is  the  teacher's  task.  To  some  extent  it  is  also  the  author's, 
and  among  textbook  makers  one  finds  not  a  few  who  attempt 
this  service. 

Why  Textbooks  Exist.  Several  reasons  may  be  assigned 
for  the  large  place  occupied  by  the  textbook  in  American 
education. 

I .  The  textbook  holds  a  central  place  in  school  work  because 
it  offers  a  compact  arrangement  of  educational  material.  If 
one  seeks  the  meaning  of  physics,  a  glance  through  a  num- 
ber of  textbooks  gives  one  the  scope  of  this  subject.  All  of 
us  resort  to  such  compendiums  of  knowledge  for  educational 


6  Textbooky  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

purposes.  The  textbook  expresses  (in  varying  degrees  of 
adequacy  to  be  sure)  the  prevailing  conceptions  of  the  respec- 
tive subjects  in  the  program  of  study,  and  in  this  way  makes  it 
possible  to  formulate  a  scheme  of  training  that  will  more 
satisfactorily  relate  to  the  pupils  the  ends  of  education,  as 
these  ends  are  determined  for  the  several  school  levels. 

The  text,  by  the  amount  of  space  given  to  various  topics, 
shows  in  general  the  relative  values  of  different  parts  of  the 
subject.  There  is,  of  course,  wide  divergence  of  viewpoint 
in  this  matter,  and  the  author's  apportionment  of  space  may 
not  be  a  true  indication  of  the  essential  values  in  the  subject. 
The  author's  selection  of  material  does  exercise,  however,  a 
very  direct  influence  on  the  course.  He  puts,  as  it  were,  a 
stamp  on  the  scope  and  quality  and  accuracy  of  the  subject. 
From  him  the  pupil  obtains  perhaps  the  only  conception  of 
the  subject  he  will  ever  be  able  to  get  or  to  use.  For  this 
reason  a  textbook  must  be  very  carefully  examined  lest  its 
bias  prove  seriously  unfair  to  the  pupil's  comprehension  of 
the  course. 

2.  Not  only  is  the  textbook  a  compendium  of  knowledge 
for  school  purposes,  but  it  serves  also  the  valuable  end  of 
ready  reference  after  the  individual  has  completed  his  formal 
education.  No  one  is  able  to  retain  all  the  details  of  his 
various  courses  of  study.  It  would  probably  be  undesirable, 
even  if  it  were  possible,  to  carry  through  life  a  large  number 
of  principles  or  facts  for  which  one  might  have  only  occasional 
need.  But  after  the  pupil  has  completed  the  study  of  funda- 
mental material,  as  suggested  in  the  textbook,  he  can  refer  to 
the  textbook  in  later  years  and  thereby  refresh  his  memory 
on  needed  points.  Many  of  the  rules  in  mathematics,  for 
example,  are  easily  forgotten  by  persons  who  have  had  no 


Its  Place  in  Modern  Education  7 

need  of  their  frequent  application.  The  emergency  call  can 
be  answered  by  consulting  the  textbook.  After  all,  education 
is  mainly  a  means  of  supplying  ideas  and  a  knowledge  of 
sources.  Only  the  facts  which  become  habits  by  use  in  our 
callings  remain  in  our  close  possession.  The  rest  of  our 
educational  experience  is  available  by  our  knowing  the  de- 
positories of  desired  data. 

3.  Another  reason  for  the  universality  of  the  textbook  lies 
in  its  provision  for  a  uniform  education  throughout  the  country. 
However  ardent  supporters  we  may  be  of  individual  education, 
it  must  be  agreed  that  a  degree  of  uniformity  is  equally  essen- 
tial. There  must  be  a  concept  of  arithmetic  common  to 
California  and  New  York.  Grammatical  usage  must  be 
fairly  uniform  in  a  democratic  education.  Every  subject 
must  connote  and  to  some  extent  denote  the  same  thing  all 
over  our  country  if  citizens  are  to  understand  one  another,  and 
to  cooperate  in  democracy's  business.  By  means  of  the  text- 
book the  general  meanings  of  subject-matter  are  spread  from 
coast  to  coast. 

4.  A  fourth  reason  for  the  widespread  use  of  the  text- 
book lies  in  its  provision  for  an  orderly  pursuit  of  the  course. 
It  gives  teacher  and  pupil  a  tangible  link  that  unites  the  many 
details  of  the  subject.  This,  of  course,  is  possible  without  the 
aid  of  a  book,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  an  exclusive  lecture  or  collat- 
eral reading  method  would  be  advisable  in  high  school  work, 
not  to  say  in  the  elementary  school.  There  is  a  growing 
opinion  that  the  lecture  method  is  not  the  best  even  in  college. 
The  author's  arrangement  of  material  in  the  textbook  is  his 
conception  of  the  course,  but  frequently  he  will  suggest  a 
possible  procedure  in  the  sequence  of  chapters  different  from 
the  order  he  has  used.    In  the  book  the  teacher  finds  large 


8  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jt4dge  It 

units  of  instruction  (main  divisions,  such  as  the  Civil  War 
or  Fractions)  and  smaller  divisions  (sections  or  chapters) 
which  serve  as  bases  for  assignments.  In  whatever  way  the 
teacher  may  reorganize  the  book  for  teaching  purposes,  its 
treatment  of  the  course  does  greatly  aid  in  unifying  the  work 
and  in  making  possible  the  division  of  education  into  various 
teaching  units. 

5.  The  textbook  in  many  instances  is  a  definite  help  to 
correct  studying.  This  is  true,  especially,  of  more  recent  texts. 
By  means  of  syllabi,  summaries,  emphasized  points  for  study, 
outlines  for  reference  reading,  and  many  titles  of  reference 
books,  as  well  as  by  questions  for  review  and  original  work, 
the  author  seeks  to  make  the  pupil  aware  of  a  certain  amount 
of  technic  in  the  learning  of  a  subject.  The  importance  of 
this  sort  of  textbook  making  in  the  development  of  study  out- 
side of  school  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  pupil  needs 
a  certain  amount  of  direction  if  his  studying  is  to  be  pursued 
economically  and  effectively.  The  "  study-helps  "  are  not 
crutches  but  guide  posts. 

6.  The  best  kind  of  textbook,  one  written  by  a  wide-awake 
author  who  appreciates  the  life-value  of  his  subject,  not  only 
gives  direction  for  study  but  it  supplies  directions  for  the 
application  of  the  subject.  To  many  teachers  this  is  an  in- 
valuable help.  Under  proper  direction  the  practical  prob- 
lems stated  in  the  textbook  become  invaluable  also  to  the 
pupil.  It  probably  is  true  that  the  time  saved  for  teachers  and 
pupils,  the  rich  suggestiveness  and  the  basis  they  supply 
for  testing  progress,  make  the  problems  and  directions  for 
further  study  indispensable.  Without  them  the  schoolbook 
would  be  of  comparatively  little  service  in  any  public  school 
course;   and  many  texts  have  failed  to  become  popular  or 


Its  Place  in  Modern  Education  9 

serviceable  very  largely  because  they  lacked  the  needful 
suggestions  and  specific  guidance  in  applying  the  subject  to 
vital  needs,  or  in  leading  the  pupil  to  more  independent  and 
thoughtful  study  of  the  subject. 

7.  Of  less  value  to  the  teacher  and  pupil  but  significant 
for  students  of  the  history  of  education  is  the  record  of  subject 
development  provided  by  textbooks  from  year  to  year.  A 
study  of  textbooks  in  grammar  and  in  history,  for  example, 
shows  how  greatly  the  point  of  view  regarding  this  subject 
has  changed.  A  series  of  texts  in  any  one  subject  records  the 
progress  of  thinking  in  a  particular  field.  Without  textbooks 
it  would  be  difficult,  if  indeed  at  all  possible,  to  trace  the  his- 
torical growth  of  educational  material.  The  textbook,  like 
the  school  itself,  reflects  the  age  in  which  it  was  evolved. 
Our  texts  to-day  are  in  many  instances  a  vast  improvement 
over  those  of  a  decade  ago.  It  may  safely  be  predicted  that 
like  improvement  will  take  place  within  the  next  ten  years. 
Having  the  old  and  the  latest  texts,  there  is  the  fascinating 
possibility  of  studying  the  growth  of  racial  and  national 
points  of  view,  and  the  constantly  readjusted  needs  of  society 
for  the  subjects  in  the  school. 

8.  Still  another  benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  textbook  is 
the  possibility  of  determining  administratively  the  various  levels 
of  school  systems  and  the  progress  of  pupils  among  these  several 
systems  by  means  of  knowing  exactly  how  much  ground  has 
been  covered  by  the  pupil.  This  record  is  also  important  in 
transfers  from  school  to  school.  Transferred  credits  are  based 
partly  on  the  amount  and  quality  of  work  done  in  certain 
textbooks.  If  these  textbooks  are  not  the  same  as  those  used 
elsewhere,  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  careful  comparisons. 
Without  such  books  it  would  be  difficult  also  to  accredit 


lo  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtcdge  It 

schools.  As  it  now  is,  college  entrants  are  accepted  on  the 
ground  of  a  well-known  prescribed  kind  of  preparation,  and 
the  college  work  continues  what  has  been  done  in  the  secondary 
school.  This,  of  course,  does  not  insure  adequate  preparation, 
for  quantity  of  work  (as  represented  in  units)  does  not  mean 
thoroughness,  but  the  prescribed  courses  with  recognized 
textbooks  and  other  educational  equipment  provide  a  scheme 
of  determining  intellectual  preparedness. 

The  advantages  of  the  textbook  have  been  well  stated  by 
Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  :  ^ 

It  has  the  advantage  of  making  one  independent  of  his  teacher ; 
you  can  take  your  book  wherever  you  please.  You  cannot  do 
that  with  a  great  lecturer,  neither  can  you  question  him  as  you 
can  the  book,  nor  can  you  select  the  time  for  hearing  the  great 
teacher  talk  as  you  can  for  reading  the  book.  And  it  is  true  that 
nearly  all  the  great  teachers  have  embodied  their  ideas  in  books. 
The  greatest  danger  of  textbook  education  is  verbatim,  parrot-like 
recitation,  but  even  here,  from  the  poorest  textbook,  a  great  deal 
of  knowledge  can  be  gleaned.  Then  there  is  the  alertness  which 
in  any  large  class  will  necessarily  be  engendered  by  an  intelligent 
understanding  and  criticism  of  the  results  arrived  at  by  different 
pupils  in  discussing  a  certain  piece  of  work  given  in  their  own 
words.  And  then  there  is  the  advantage  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  with  the  textbook  the  child  can  be  busy  by  itself. 

A  cursory  glance  over  the  situation  in  the  United  States 
assures  one  that  the  textbook  is  a  remarkable  factor  in  public 
school  education,  and  nowhere  so  wonderfully  developed  as 
here.     The  American  publishers  are  among  the  great  educators 

*  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Education,  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies 
in  Historical  and  Political  Sciences.  Supplementary  notes.  Eleventh  series, 
1893,  p.  272. 


Its  Place  in  Modern  Edtccaiion  ii 

of  the  world.  They  are  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  new 
ideas  in  the  classroom,  and  wherever  they  discover  a  teacher 
who  is  doing  something  of  merit  they  enlist  this  teacher  to 
prepare  a  description  of  method  or  of  an  organization  of  a 
course  so  that  it  will  be  available  to  all  other  educators. 
Publishers  and  teachers,  with  the  help  of  expert  book  critics 
and  technicians  of  book  making,  become  in  this  way  the  sine 
qua  non  of  public  education .  Without  this  means  of  organizing 
and  preserving  the  newest  ideas  in  education  many  blessings 
of  genius  and  trained  intellect  would  be  unavailable  for  coming 
generations. 

Summary.  The  foregoing  advantages  in  using  the  text- 
book indicate  that  not  without  reason  has  this  field  of  public 
education  reached  its  astonishing  development.  At  present 
authors  and  publishers  are  seeking  to  incorporate  what  in- 
vestigators have  found  to  be  essential  principles  in  effective 
learning.  While  it  is  true  that  teachers  are  greatly  supple- 
menting the  textbook  by  a  large  variety  of  materials  and 
technic,  it  is  equally  true  that  their  need  of  the  book  as  part 
of  their  directive  material  has  increased,  for  the  books  of 
merit  to-day  are  numerous,  and  no  one  book  can  easily  be 
selected  for  exclusive  reference  in  a  course. 

In  the  following  pages  an  attempt  is  made  to  consider  very 
briefly  some  of  the  principles  that  seem  important  in  the  dis- 
criminating use  of  the  textbook.  To  the  reflective  teacher 
the  discussion  may  suggest  other  ways  in  which  texts  can 
serve  pupils  and  teachers.  The  alert  instructor  will  employ 
procedures  peculiarly  adapted  to  his  own  groups  of  pupils. 
Some  teachers  will  find  it  necessary  to  give  greater  attention 
to  the  substance  of  the  book,  while  others  may  need  to  refer 
to  the  text  as  only  one  of  many  reference  books.    No  one 


12  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

scheme  of  reorganization  of  textbook  matter  can  be  applied 
to  all  subjects  or  to  any  one  subject.  Here  again  the  teacher's 
initiative  and  originality  must  be  drawn  upon.  While  we 
are  waiting  for  the  ideal  book  teachers  can  render  valuable 
service  by  making  the  study  of  textbook  construction  part  of 
their  discussions  at  institutes  and  in  reading  circles ;  and  also 
the  field  of  careful  experimentation  for  the  ascertaining  of 
what  arrangement  of  material  will  best  serve  the  needs  of 
school  people  engaged  in  the  teaching  and  stud3dng  of  the 
various  subjects. 

QUESTIONS   AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Do  you  notice  in  your  school  that  there  is  any  tendency  to 
depend  less  heavily  on  the  textbook  than  formerly? 

2.  If  there  is  such  a  tendency  what  are  the  reasons  for  it?  Are 
these  reasons  sound? 

3.  If  you  were  planning  a  course  on  Textbook  Making  what 
topics  would  you  include? 

4.  In  addition  to  the  advantages  of  the  textbook  already  named 
in  the  chapter,  what  others,  growing  out  of  your  own  experience, 
can  you  suggest? 

5.  What  additional  disadvantages  of  the  textbook  have  you 
found  ? 

6.  What  conditions  in  American  education  seem  to  require  a 
greater  use  of  textbooks  than  in  European  countries  ? 

7.  Which  type  of  school  system  do  you  judge  is  the  stronger  — 
one  using  many  texts  in  a  course,  or  one  using  only  one?    Why? 

8.  Did  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  use  many  textbooks? 

9.  How  would  you  organize  and  administer  a  school  system 
that  used  texts  only  occasionally? 

10.  Have  you  referred  to  many  of  your  old  school  books  since 
graduation?    Why? 


Its  Place  in  Modern  Education  13 

11.  Among  the  advantages  of  the  textbook  which  do  you  regard 
most  important?    Why? 

12.  Which  of  the  disadvantages  of  the  textbook  seem  to  you 
most  serious  ?    Why  ? 

REFERENCES 

Ha&ris,  W.  T.    Importance  oj  the  Textbook.    Journal  of  Education, 

Vol.80:  317;  Oct.  8,  1914. 
Hart,    A.    B.     Schoolhooks   and   International    Prejudices y    American 

Association  for  International  Conciliation,  1911. 
Rice,  J.  M.    Substitution  of  the   Teacher  for  the  Textbook,  N.  E.  A. 

Proceedings,  1895.    pp.  562-70. 
Thurber,  C.  H.    What  about  Textbooks?    Outlook.    Vol.  105:   81-4; 

Sept.  13,  1913. 
WiNSHiP,  A.  E.     Vitality  and  Virility  of  American  Schoolbooks.    Journal 

of  Education,  Vol.  82:  255-8;  Sept.  23,  1915. 


CHAPTER  II 
A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  TEXTBOOK 

The  Need  of  a  History  of  the  Textbook.  Within  recent 
years  many  histories  of  education  have  been  written  from 
various  points  of  view  and  with  widely  differing  types  of 
organization.  One  meets  with  disappointment,  however,  in 
the  search  for  a  history  of  the  textbook.  There  are  many 
and  scattering  references  to  schoolbooks  throughout  the  his- 
tory of  the  development  of  educational  systems  and  institu- 
tions. By  inference  one  is  satisfied  that  in  the  educational 
schemes  of  ancient  Babylon,  Assyria,  Egypt,  and  Israel 
there  were  no  individual  texts  available.  The  clay  tablets 
of  ancient  Persia,  small  and  numerous,  may  have  served  as 
convenient  media  of  instruction,  just  as  they  were  used  for 
correspondence,  military  and  commercial  orders,  receipts, 
etc.  The  papyrus  rolls  among  the  Egyptians  were  carefully 
guarded  by  the  priests.  In  Greece  and  Rome  it  is  unlikely 
that  each  pupil  possessed  a  textbook  of  his  own.  The  ex- 
pense and  the  time  required  to  copy  manuscripts  would  make 
their  wider  distribution  prohibitive. 

Mediaeval  Textbooks.  Toward  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century  individual  manuscripts  were  not  uncommon.  Many 
small  sized  Bibles  and  prayer  books  were  current.  Manu- 
scripts with  copious  notations  are  now  found  in  such  museums 
as  the  Vatican,  and  those  in  Lisbon,  in  Paris,  and  in  the  ar- 

14 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  15 

chives  of  many  of  the  old  monasteries.  They  witness  to  their 
having  been  used  by  students  under  some  form  of  instruction- 
The  ancient  classics  were  used  as  foundational  subject-matter, 
and  there  were,  of  course,  numerous  manuscripts  of  these 
ancient  writings.  Reference  books  in  the  form  of  theological 
and  philosophical  commentaries  were  also  available.  Con- 
densations of  Aristotle's  lectures  were  also  used.  Grammars 
as  compendiums  of  definitions,  classifications,  and  purely 
formal  rules  of  speech  were  studied.  Arithmetic  and  geometry 
and  astronomy  formed  part  of  the  seven  liberal  arts. 

The  most  popular  books  in  mediaeval  education  were  the 
following : 

Orosius,  Historiarum  adversus  Paganos,  Libri  vii. 

Martianus  Capella  Nuptiae  Mercuri  et  Philologiae.  (Mar- 
riage of  Mercury  and  Philology.) 

Donatus  ars  Grammatica. 

Boetius,  Consolatio  Philosophiae. 

Casiodorus,  De  Arte  el  disciplina  liheralium  artium, 

IsodoruSy  Etymologiae, 

They  were  cumbersome  depositories  of  Greek  and  Latin 
treatises.  Museums  of  knowledge  would  be  an  accurate 
description  of  them.  The  contents  had  to  be  memorized. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that,  although  these  books 
were  extremely  formal,  Latin  was  the  common  means  of  com- 
munication among  the  people,  especially  in  the  church.  The 
illustrations,  concrete  material,  and  inspiration  to  study  were 
easily  found  in  the  everyday  life  of  the  students.  The  students 
lived  in  an  atmosphere  of  Latin,  a  fact  that  may  easily  excuse 
the  absence  of  vitalizing  principles  in  the  books  themselves. 
To-day  it  is  necessary  to  supply  the  textbook  in  Latin  as  well 
as  in  other  subjects  with  vitalizing  principles  because  the 


i6  Textbook^  How  to  Use  It  mid  Judge  It 

pupil  does  not  seem  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  some  of  the 
school  subjects  are  really  very  closely  concerned  with  his 
daily  Hving. 

Dr.  Frank  W.  Smith  ^  gives  an  interesting  series  of  sum- 
maries of  some  of  the  mediaeval  texts.  Capella,  for  instance, 
presents  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts  in  a  very  fanciful  manner. 
They  are  bridesmaids  at  the  marriage  of  Mercury  and 
Philology.  Each  in  turn  comes  forward  to  present  her 
art  in  due  form  and  style.  The  genius  of  grammar  is  in- 
troduced in  the  following  manner,  which  is  typical  of  the 
others : 

Letos'  son  now  brings  in  one  of  Mercury's  attendants,  old, 
but  comely,  once  claiming  descent  from  Osiris  and  birth  at 
Memphis,  long  guarded  in  secret,  but  found  and  educated  by 
Mercury.  In  Attica  where  she  has  lived  most  of  her  life,  she 
wore  the  pallium,  but  enters  the  assembly  of  the  gods  now  in  Latin 
fashion,  because  of  Latin  environment  and  Latin  auspices. 

She  plays  the  r61e  of  doctor  of  language  and  carries  strange 
concoctions  of  leech-craft  for  curing  various  defects  of  the  vocal 
organs  and  faults  of  speech.  Among  the  tools  is  a  highly  polished 
file  with  eight  gilded  sides  (the  traditional  eight  parts  of  speech). 
Capella  says :  As  often  as  she  received  any  one  to  be  cured  it  was 
her  custom  to  treat  first  of  the  Noun,  the  common  errors  and 
gender,  then  modes,  tenses,  and  inflections  of  verbs.  To  cure  the 
dull  and  slow  she  had  them  run  the  whole  round  labor  hard  at  the 
whole  art. 

The  dramatic  style  of  the  book  perhaps  was  intentionally 
selected  so  as  to  arouse  interest. 

The  Renaissance  Textbooks.  The  textbooks  of  the  Ren- 
aissance were  in  many  respects  similar  to  those  of  the 
1  The  High  School.    Sturgis,  Walton  Co. ;   1916. 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  17 

preceding  age.  But  at  this  time  many  new  books  began  to 
appear.  The  printing  press  made  it  possible  to  produce  books 
more  quickly  and  in  larger  quantities.  Men  like  Sturm  and 
Melancthon  began  to  prepare  suitable  texts.  They  edited 
the  classical  authors,  and  Melancthon  even  wrote  a  physics 
as  well  as  texts  in  other  subjects.  Books  on  chemistry, 
natural  philosophy,  natural  history,  geometry,  geography, 
history,  etc.,  now  appeared,  some  in  Latin,  some  in  English. 
By  the  year  1700  they  had  reached  large  numbers. 

In  the  Constitutions  Respecting  Instructions  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus  (1558),  Loyola  refers  to  textbooks  in  colleges  and 
universities,  but  his  directions  are  of  interest  to  the  student 
of  this  subject  in  all  of  its  branches.  He  says :  "as  touching 
Latin  and  Greek  books  of  humanity  both  in  our  Universities 
and  Colleges,  as  far  as  possible,  those  shall  not  be  used  which 
contain  anything  prejudicial  to  good  morals,  except  they 
have  been  previously  purified  of  improper  things  or  words." 
These  directions  carry  out  the  spirit  of  Plato's  and  Aristotle's 
instructions  regarding  the  reading  of  literature.^ 

Melancthon's  textbooks  deserve  more  than  passing  notice. 
He  was  not  very  well  satisfied  with  his  Greek  Grammar,  but 
at  the  insistence  of  his  "  bookseller  "  he  "  critically  revised 
the  whole  altering  and  improving  it."  The  Grammar  is 
simple  and  clear,  but  does  not  include  syntax.  His  Latin 
grammar  was  written  originally  for  one  of  his  pupils.  It  was 
published  in  1 525  against  Melancthon's  wishes.  In  the  edition 
of  1542  he  writes :  "  In  the  first  edition  of  my  grammar  there 
were  various  omissions.  These  may  be  supplied,  yet  there 
should  not  be  too  many  rules ;   lest  their  number  prove  dis- 

'  For  a  good  discussion  of  this  whole  subject  see  German  Teachers  and 
Educators  by  Barnard.    Brown  and  Gross,  Publishers;    1878. 
c 


i8  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jidge  It 

couraging  to  the  learner."  He  claims  that  knowledge  of 
grammar  is  indispensable  to  the  understanding  of  theology. 
He  says  further  in  the  second  part  of  the  edition  of  1550  of 
this  grammar  or  syntax,  that  persons  who  expect  to  become 
philologists  merely  through  the  perusal  of  the  classics  cannot 
hope  to  succeed.  They  will  never  be  rooted  and  grounded. 
"  Their  false  view  proceeds  from  a  repugnance  to  the  restraint 
of  rules,  —  a  repugnance  that  by  and  by  will  degenerate  into  a 
dangerous  contempt  of  all  law  and  order." 

The  following  comment  by  Schenck,  who  lectured  on  Latin 
grammar  at  Leipzic,  bears  witness  to  possibilities  in  textbook 
making  that  must  be  now  a  lost  art,  for  surely  no  one  would 
have  the  temerity  to-day  to  review  a  book  in  Schenck's  aban- 
don of  opinion.  ''  This  little  book,"  he  says  of  Melancthon's 
grammar,  ''  has  now  attained  to  that  perfection  that  there 
appears  to  be  nothing  deficient  in  it,  nor  can  there  hereafter 
be  anything  added  to  it ;  and  accordingly  it  will  ever  continue 
to  be,  as  it  now  is,  the  sum  of  all  perfection,  neither  to  be 
altered  nor  remodeled."  ^ 

Michael  Neander  found,  however,  that  the  book  was  too 
profuse  for  elementary  instruction.  He  accordingly  reduced 
Camerarius'  edition  of  Melancthon's  grammar  from  five 
hundred  seven  pages  to  one  hundred  thirty.  This  text- 
book held  chief  place  in  the  schools  of  Germany  in  the  last 
half  of  the  i6th  century.  Between  1525  and  1727  it  passed 
through  fifty-one  editions,  each  more  or  less  altered  from 
the  original.  The  book  had  large  influence  on  grammatical 
instruction  in  Germany  even  up  to  the  date  of  Barnard's 
volume  (1878). 

Melancthon  wrote  also  The  Manual  of  Logic,  designed  to 
*  Barnard,  op.  cit.,  p.  173. 


A  Brief  History  of  tJic  Textbook  19 

aid  the  student  to  understand  Aristotle.  He  believed  that 
logic  was  fundamental  to  the  comprehension  of  the  church 
doctrines,  and  proclaimed  that  "  even  as  there  are  many  men 
of  unbridled  passions  who  hate  the  restraints  of  moral  law, 
so  there  are  those  who  cannot  abide  the  rules  of  art."  He 
produced  also  a  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  which  was  intended  as 
an  elementary  guide  to  the  study  of  Cicero  and  Quintilian. 
His  Manual  of  Physics  was  written  in  a  pious  style,  and  bears 
witness  not  only  to  much  sound  learning,  but  to  belief  in  the 
superstitions  of  astrology.  As  early  as  1 5  29  he  wrote  a  Manual 
of  Ethics  and  a  Manual  of  History,  the  latter  first  written  by 
one  of  his  pupils  but  entirely  rewritten  by  Melancthon  in 

1538. 

The  interest  in  classical  literature,  restrained  during  the 
long  theological  domination  of  individual  taste,  and  revived 
by  the  Renaissance,  flourished  unhindered  for  a  time.  But 
love  of  the  classical  ideals  of  living  and  thinking  soon  changed 
to  a  slavish  worship  of  classical  form,  and  the  resulting 
Ciceronianism  became  as  formal  as  any  of  the  disciplines  of 
the  schoolmen.  Language  became  a  tyrannical  drill.  Con- 
tent meant  little,  form  was  supreme.  The  spread  of  the  study 
of  the  vernacular  gradually  resulted  in  the  decline  of  Latin  as 
a  spoken  language.  This  in  turn  led  to  the  need  of  vitalizing 
grammar  lest  its  traditional  formalism  prove  too  forbidding 
for  a  successful  competition  with  the  vernacular.  The  result 
was  that  abbreviated  and  simplified  forms  of  the  old  grammars 
were  written.  They  sought  to  be  more  interesting.  Among 
these  new  texts  appeared  one  that  may  be  called  a  transition 
text,  for  it  marks  the  first  definite  approach  to  the  modem 
grammar.  This  was  Robertson's  edition  of  Lily,  written 
entirely  in  Latin. 


20  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

The  Orhis  Pictus  by  Comenius  appeared  in  1685.  It  was 
destined  to  become  the  most  popular  textbook  in  Europe  for 
a  hundred  years.  Aside  from  the  A  B  C  primers  this  was 
the  first  illustrated  schoolbook  ever  printed.  It  was,  how- 
ever, little  more  than  an  illustrated  dictionary,  its  style  not 
being  markedly  attractive. 

Textbooks  in  Colonial  America.  Among  the  interesting 
exhibits  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  in  San  Francisco 
was  a  collection  of  old  textbooks  which,  like  old  flags  and 
swords  and  other  relics  of  the  battlefield,  bore  the  marks  of 
ancient  struggle,  much  of  it,  no  doubt,  physical  rather 
than  intellectual.  Between  the  textbooks  of  our  American 
ancestors  (not  to  speak  in  detail  of  the  earlier  specimens  in 
Europe)  and  the  beautifully  bound  and  handsomely  illus- 
trated modern  schoolbook,  lies  a  long  history  whose  many 
pages  would  prove  an  interesting  and  suggestive  record  of 
how  textbooks  began,  and  how  they  have  been  evolved  and 
vastly  improved.  Strictly  speaking,  the  modern  textbook 
is  little  more  than  three  hundred  years  old.  Only  within  the 
last  seventy-five  years  has  it  become  more  adequately  adapted 
to  the  laws  of  the  learning  process,  and  in  several  respects 
there  are  needs  of  a  still  better  adaptation. 

Happily  we  have  passed  beyond  the  alphabet  age,  but  in 
the  early  days  learning  the  alphabet  was  the  beginning  of 
wisdom.  Attempts  at  grading  were  purely  arbitrary,  letters 
preceding  simple  syllables  and  these  in  turn  being  followed  by 
more  difficult  syllabification.  The  road  to  learning  was 
cobbled  with  small  and  large  letter  combinations.  The 
application  of  this  preliminary  instruction  was  made  in 
the  reading  of  religious  material,  some  of  it  extremely  lugu- 
brious. 


A  Brief  History  of  Ihe  Textbook  21 

For  the  convenience  of  the  pupil,  and  doubtless  also  for 
reasons  of  economy,  the  earliest  reading  books  were  simply  a 
single  sheet  attached  to  a  small  rectangular  piece  of  wood 
with  a  handle.  The  modern  handmirror  illustrates  the  gen- 
eral form.  Over  the  sheet  was  fastened  a  fairly  transparent 
piece  of  horn.  This  '*  hornbook,"  as  it  was  called,  was 
suspended  around  the  pupil's  neck.  To  us  the  contents  of 
this  primitive  textbook  were  very  crude.  The  page  began 
with  a  cross,  the  emblem  of  piety,  and  also  a  charm  against 
hidden  evils  in  the  letters  to  follow.  Then  came  four  rows 
of  the  alphabet,  two  in  small  letters,  and  two  in  capitals. 
These  were  followed  with  three  lines  of  syllables  in  two 
columns,  at  the  top  of  each  column  appearing  the  vowels 
a,  e,  i,  o,  u.  The  left-hand  column  gave  syllables  like  ab, 
eb,  ib,  etc.,  and  the  right-hand  column,  ba,  be,  bi,  etc.  In 
solemn  blessing  followed :  In  the  Name  of  the  Father,  and  of 
the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  "  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
The  first  of  these  hornbooks  was  printed  in  Latin  about  1400. 
In  the  reign  of  Charles  II  they  were  bound  in  leather  with  a 
picture  of  the  mounted  King  stamped  on  the  back.^ 

After  completing  the  hornbook  the  pupil  began  to  study  the 
Primer,  also  religious.  In  fact  all  the  books  used  for  instruc- 
tion in  reading  were  religious  up  to  1750.  These  primers 
were  usually  copies  of  sectarian  creeds  and  prayers.  Martin 
Luther,  for  example,  wrote  a  Child's  Little  Primer  which 
contained  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the 
Creed,  and  a  Catechism.    Of  special  interest  to  the  student  of 

*  Interesting  pictures  of  the  hornbook  and  other  early  texts  can  be  seen  in 
The  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education^  pp.  69-98,  by  S.  C.  Parker. 
Ginn  and  Co.,  191 2,  and  Old-time  Schools  and  School  Books  by  Clifton  Johnson. 
MacQiillan  Co.,  191 7. 


22  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtidge  It 

American  education  is  the  New  England  Primer,  which  was 
patterned  after  English  models,  the  latter  no  doubt  being 
directly  influenced  by  Luther's.  It  doubtless  was  influenced 
also  by  the  Orhis  Pictus  of  Comenius  (1658).  The  New 
England  Primer  appeared  in  1690,  its  author  being  Benjamin 
Harris,  an  EngHsh  bookseller.  It  was  of  small  size,  about 
three  inches  by  four,  and  printed  in  hand-cut  type  with  very 
irregular  alignment.  On  the  left  of  the  page  appear  a 
column  of  indistinct  illustrations  and  opposite  them  brief 
moralizings : 

In  Adam's  Fall 

We  sinned  all 

Thy  Life  to  mend 
This  Book  attend 

The  idle  Fool 

Is  whipt  at  School 

The  first  part  of  the  Primer  contains  religious  admonitions 
followed  by  the  alphabet  and  syllables  and  lists  of  words 
for  spelling.  The  letters  are  arranged  in  groups  of  one,  two, 
three,  four,  five,  and  six  syllables.  Then  appears  the  picture 
alphabet  with  rimes,  as  quoted  above.  Verses  for  children 
with  references  to  death,  hell,  and  God's  wrath  come  next. 
There  are  quotations  from  the  Proverbs,  The  Lord's  Prayer, 
Creed,  Commandments ;  and  names  of  the  Biblical  books  are 
also  included.  The  little  book  with  its  eighty  pages  con- 
cludes with  the  Westminster  Shorter  Catechism. 

The  catechism  with  its  condensed  theology  was  regarded 
as  the  most  important  part  of  the  Primer,  and  to  a  people  who 
firmly  believed  that  children  were  "  young  vipers  and  in- 
finitely more  hateful  than  vipers  to  God  "  it  was  of  course 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  23 

tremendously  important  that  early  and  strenuous  measures 
should  be  taken  to  save  them  from  the  wrath  to  come.  Doubt- 
less there  are  teachers  to-day  who  think  the  early  estimate  of 
school  children  quite  correct.  The  New  England  Primer 
was  the  best  seller  of  its  day.  It  had  a  vogue  in  England  and 
Scotland  as  well  as  in  America,  and  up  to  1849  it  has  been 
estimated  that  more  than  three  millions  of  copies  had  been 
sold.  There  were  other  primers,  such  as  The  Evangelical 
Primer,  similar  in  content,  but  much  less  popular. 

Only  a  few  hooks  available.  In  the  schools  of  the  early 
colonies  books  were  necessarily  few.  A  catechism  or  a 
primer,  a  psalter,  and  a  testament  or  Bible  comprised  the  list 
for  the  average  boy.  Pupils  in  Latin  had  additional  texts. 
In  the  beginning  it  was  only  natural  that  almost  all  of  the  books 
were  the  products  of  foreign  authors.  Johnson  believes  that 
the  only  schoolbook  of  American  origin  before  the  Revolution 
was  a  Uttle  Latin  grammar  by  Ezekiel  Cheever,  known  as 
Cheever's  A  ccidence  (i  645) .  It  passed  through  many  editions, 
the  last  appearing  as  late  as  1838.  Lily's  Grammar ,  with 
twenty-five  kinds  of  nouns,  seven  genders,  etc.,  was  studied 
after  the  pupil  had  mastered  Cheever's  Accidence.  Among 
other  books  in  common  use  were  iEsop,  Eutropius,  and  The 
Colloquies  of  Corderius  for  the  younger  pupils;  and  for  the 
older  boys  Caesar,  Ovid,  Virgil,  and  Cicero  were  commonly 
used. 

The  religious  character  of  early  American  schools.  The 
ministers  were  the  oflScial  supervisors  of  the  public  schools 
in  the  colonies.  The  ministers  were  also  town  officers.  They 
were  expected  not  only  to  exhort  but  to  give  the  people 
religious  instruction,  and  of  course  the  children  would  form 
a  large  part  of  the  charge  of  every  minister.    The  children 


24  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

were  examined  in  the  catechism,  in  their  knowledge  of  the 
Bible,  and  sometimes  in  their  understanding  of  the  minister's 
sermons.  In  1710,  by  a  Boston  enactment,  ministers  were 
expected  on  their  school  visits  to  pray  with  the  pupils  and  to 
*'  entertain  them  with  some  instructions  of  piety  especially 
adapted  to  their  age  and  education."  The  rural  minister  was 
often  called  upon  to  teach,  especially  Latin,  in  towns  that  had 
no  grammar  pupils.  And  many  of  them  boarded  several 
pupils  as  well  as  taught  them.^  This  sort  of  supervision 
and  close  interest  on  the  part  of  the  church  tended  to  make 
education  strongly  religious  in  character,  and  one  finds  this 
influence  widely  represented  in  the  early  textbooks. 

Early  Spelling  Books.  Efforts  to  break  away  from  the 
stern  and  narrow  religious  conception  of  education  appeared 
in  the  form  of  "  spelling  books."  These,  however,  were  not 
wholly  or  even  predominantly  secular,  at  first.  The  title 
of  one  of  the  earliest  of  these  spelling  books  indicates  the  wider 
point  of  view:  The  English  Scholemaistery  teaching  all  his 
schollars  of  what  age  so  ever  the  most  easie,  short,  and  perfect 
order  of  distinct  readings  and  true  writings  our  English  tongue 
that  hath  ever  yet  been  known  or  published  by  any.  The  con- 
tents were  apportioned  as  follows :  alphabet  and  spelling,  32 
pages;  a  short  catechism,  18  pages;  chronology,  5  pages; 
writing  copy,  2  pages;  arithmetic,  2  pages;  the  remainder 
of  the  book  being  made  up  of  word  lists  for  spelling.  It  was 
a  thin  book  of  seventy-two  pages,  published  by  Coote  in  1596. 
Much  of  it  was  printed  in  Old  English  black  letter. 

The  most  popular  of  the  spellers  was  Dilworth's  New  Guide 
to  the  English  Tongue,  published  in  1740,  and  in  general  use 
until  shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  One 
*  See  Johnson,  Old-Time  Schools  and  School  Books,  p.  24. 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  25 

of  the  handsomest  of  the  spellers  was  Watt's  Compleat  Spelling 
Book  (1770).  Reference  should  also  be  made  to  Nathaniel 
Strong's  England's  Perfect  Scfiool-M aster  (1676). 

That  all  of  the  books  for  children  were  not  formal  and 
pious  in  those  early  days  is  shown  in  the  preface  to  The  History 
of  Genesis  (1708)  which  was  written  to  keep  children  from 
reading  Tom  Thumb,  Guy  of  Warwick,  or  "  some  such  foolish 
book."  The  parents  are  exhorted  not  to  let  their  children 
read  "  these  vain  Books,  profane  Ballads,  and  filthy  songs. 
Throw  away  all  fond  and  amorous  Romances,  and  fabulous 
Histories  of  Giants,  the  bombast  achievements  of  Knight 
Errantry,  and  the  like;  for  these  fill  the  Heads  of  Children 
with  vain  silly  and  idle  imaginations." 

The  Child's  Weeks  Work  or  A  Little  Book  so  nicely  suited 
to  the  Genius  and  Capacity  of  a  Little  Child  Both  for  Matter 
and  Method  that  it  will  infallibly  Allure  and  Lead  him  on  into 
a  way  of  Reading  with  all  Ease  and  Expedition  that  can  be 
desired,  was  written  by  William  Ronkfley  (17 12).  The 
Protestant  Tutor  was  another  EngHsh  text  of  the  early  days. 
Only  a  few  of  these  books  reached  the  American  colonies  and 
not  at  all  in  any  quantities. 

A  glance  through  the  history  of  American  spelling  books 
reveals  some  striking  facts.  On  account  of  the  war  with 
England  it  was  difficult  to  get  schoolbooks  from  abroad.  A 
young  teacher,  only  twenty-four  years  old,  in  charge  of  a 
school  in  Orange  County,  New  York,  seized  the  opportunity 
and  compiled  a  spelling  book,  which  was  printed  in  Hartford 
in  1783.  It  formed  the  first  part  of  a  Grammatical  Institute 
of  the  English  Language  and  was  known  as  The  American 
Spelling  Book  and  more  popularly  as  The  Blue  Back  Speller. 
The  author,  Noah  Webster,  received  royalties  from  its  sale  to 


26  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

such  an  extent  that  his  family  was  comfortably  supported  by 
this  book  for  twenty  years,  although  Webster  received  only  one 
cent  a  copy  as  royalty.  When  he  was  eighty-four  the  sale  of 
the  spelling  book  had  reached  twenty-four  million  copies. 

A  little  later  in  Boston  (1805)  The  Child^s  Companion  by 
Caleb  Bingham  became  an  active  competitor  for  popular 
favor.  Its  contents  were  similar  to  the  other  spellers,  in- 
cluding moralizings,  fables,  and  a  list  of  '^  Improprieties  in 
Pronunciation."  In  1798  a  Hartford  printer  compiled  The 
Child's  Spelling  Book.  It  contains  many  pictures  and  enter- 
taining subject-matter.  Caleb  Alexander's  The  Young 
Ladies'  and  Gentleman's  Spelling  Book  was  published  in  1799. 
It  showed  much  improvement  in  binding,  in  illustrations,  and 
in  general  arrangement.  A  series  of  poems  by  Isaac  Watts, 
then  very  popular,  forms  the  striking  feature  of  the  book. 
In  the  same  year  (1799)  The  Columbian  Spelling  Book 
appeared,  but  its  general  make-up  showed  much  crudity. 
Another  speller  with  a  similar  title.  The  Columbian  Primer, 
was  offered  by  H.  Mann,  of  Dedham,  in  1802.  Its  arrangement 
of  material  in  the  form  of  rimes  and  interesting  pictures 
made  it  quite  popular.  There  must  have  been  something 
hypnotic  about  the  title  of  these  books  for  in  1827  another 
Columbian  Primer  was  placed  on  the  market  in  New  York. 
The  most  noticeable  change  in  the  latter  was  the  printing 
of  two  cuts  to  a  page  where  the  Dedham  Primer  had  used 
only  one. 

Contents  of  Early  Spellers.  In  Fiske's  New  England 
Spelling  Book  (1803)  there  is  a  page  devoted  to  "  Words 
frequently  used  in  speaking  and  writing  which  should  be  well- 
learned  by  every  scholar."  In  the  list,  among  many  others, 
are  Damn  (capitalized),  dirge,  and  gaol  (1).     Johnson  cites 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  27 

from  the  preface  of  a  speller  in  1828  that  the  early  books 
"  contain  words  collected  from  all  departments  of  nature, 
life,  and  action ;  from  the  nursery,  the  kitchen,  the  dressing 
room,  the  stable,  the  barroom,  the  gaming  table,  the  seaman's 
wharf,  the  apothecary's  shop,  from  the  subtle  pages  of  the 
metaphysician  and  the  rhapsodies  of  the  pompous  pedant." 
It  is  not  difficult  to  see  whence  came  the  tendency  that  has 
prevailed  in  spelling  books  until  quite  recently. 

Comly's  A  New  Spelling  Book,  Philadelphia  (1806) ; 
Perry's  TJte  Only  Sure  Guide  to  the  English  Tongtie  (1798); 
Joshua  Bradley's  Lessons  in  Spellings,  Windsor,  Vermont 
(181 5) ;  John  Franklin  Jones's  Analytical  Speller,  New  York 
(1823) ;  BoUes's  Spelling  Book,  New  London  (1831) ;  The 
Young  Tyro's  Instructor,  New  York  (1834) ;  Parson's 
Analytical  Spelling  Book,  Portland,  Maine  (1836) ;  Exercises 
in  Orthography,  Providence,  R.  I.  (1826) ;  and  Companion  to 
Spelling  Books  (1843),  ^^e  among  the  most  prominent  of 
the  spellers  that  influenced  the  contents  of  earlier  schooling 
in  the  subjects  of  spelling,  reading,  and  general  morals. 

Readers.  Forming  the  third  part  of  Webster's  Institutes 
was  the  first  American  reader,  published  in  1785.  Before 
this  time  there  were  no  readers  in  the  technical  sense  of 
the  word.  The  Bible  and  various  kinds  of  homilies  served 
as  bases  of  instruction  in  reading.  Webster,  however, 
reached  a  commendable  achievement  in  his  book.  The 
reader  contains  tales  of  revolutionary  heroes,  Indian  wars, 
and  also  ancient  stories.  Poetry  and  dramatic  dialogues 
form  a  considerable  section  of  the  book.  Strictly  speaking 
it  is  more  of  a  guide  to  declamation  than  a  reader,  but  its 
great  advance  beyond  anything  of  its  kind  in  those  days  gives 
it  high  merit. 


28  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jttdge  It 

Webster,  however,  did  not  get  many  royalties  from  this 
publication.  A  strong  competitor,  in  the  person  of  Caleb 
Bingham,  published  the  American  Preceptor,  which  by  1832 
had  reached  a  sale  of  640,000  copies.  Webster's  book  is  made 
up  of  three  parts  —  "  Narration,"  "  Lessons  in  Speaking," 
and  "  Dialogues."  His  other  reader.  The  Little  Reader's 
Assistant  (1790),  was  a  rather  lugubrious  and  harrowing  series 
of  selections.  Bingham's  Columbian  Orator  also  became 
popular. 

An  English  Reader  by  Lindley  Murray  was  another  of  the 
readers  that  made  a  large  place  for  itself.  Abraham  Lincoln 
regarded  this  as  the  best  schoolbook  ever  put  into  the 
hands  of  an  American  youth.  In  1823  John  Pierpont  pub- 
lished The  American  First  Class  Book.  It  contains  many  ex- 
cellent principles  of  textbook  making,  which  indeed  could  be 
accepted  to-day  with  no  little  profit.  Selections  from  such 
contemporaries  as  Scott,  Irving,  Channing,  Bryant,  and 
Wordsworth  form  the  bulk  of  the  material.  Humor  and 
sentiment  are  included. 

Before  1825  there  were  only  a  few  readers  available  for 
beginners.  Johnson  believes  that  the  first  was  The  Franklin 
Primer  (1802) .  It  contained  a  variety  of  tables,  moral  lessons, 
and  sentences,  a  concise  history  of  the  world,  hymns,  and 
catechisms.  Stamford's  The  Art  of  Reading,  Boston  (1807) ; 
The  Mental  Flower  Garden,  New  York  (1808) ;  Strong's  The 
Common  Reader  (1818) ;  The  Child's  Instructor  (1808) ; 
The  Child's  Instructor  and  Moral  Primer,  Portland,  Maine 
(1822),  were  among  the  early  publications  in  this  field. 
Leavitt  says  in  his  Easy  Lessons  (1823)  that  there  was  con- 
siderable need  of  elementary  readers,  and  this  fact  accoimts 
for  the  numerous  reading  books  that  now  began  to  appear. 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  29 

The  Fourth  Class  Book,  Brookfield,  Mass.  (1827),  and  the 
Clinton  Primer  (1830)  were  attractive  attempts  to  meet  the 
demand.  A  second  Book  for  Reading  and  Spelling,  Boston 
(1830) ;  Gallaudet's  The  Child's  Picture  Defining  and  Reading 
Book,  Hartford  (1830),  sought  to  present  a  variety  of  reading 
matter  with  illustrations  that  aimed  to  arouse  interest  and  to 
instruct  at  the  same  time.  Gallaudet's  illustrations  are  superior 
to  those  of  his  competitors'  books.  The  Union  Primer  (1832) 
has  some  strange  lessons  in  morals.  The  Child's  Guide,  Spring- 
field, Mass.  (1833),  contains  some  keen  lessons  in  observation 
and  interpretation  of  nature.  Pierpont's  The  Young  Reader 
(1835) ;  Lovell's  Young  Pupil's  Second  Book,  New  Haven 
(1836) ;  The  American  Juvenile  Primer  (1838) ;  Mandeville's 
Primary  Reader,  New  York  (i  849) ,  are  interesting  to  the  student 
of  this  subject.  In  fact  the  selections  in  most  of  the  earlier 
readers  deserve  approval  and  in  some  instances  emulation. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  The  General  Class-Book,  Greenfield, 
Mass.  (1828) ;  Comstock's  Rhythmical  Reader,  Philadelphia 
(1832) ;  The  Christian  Reader  (1832) ;  The  Farmer's  School 
Book,  Albany  (1837) ;  The  Monitorial  Reader,  Concord,  N.  H. 
(1839),  and  Lovell's  Young  Speaker,  New  Haven  (1844), 
were  in  popular  use. 

Grammars.  Grammars  began  to  appear  in  1580  and  1594 
when  BuUaker  and  Greenwood  respectively  published,  the 
former  his  English  Grammar  and  the  latter  his  granmiar 
written  in  Latin.  Webster's  Institute  —  Part  II  was  the 
Grammatical  Institute  of  the  English  Language.  Caleb  Bing- 
ham's Young  Lady's  Accidence:  desigtied  for  the  use  of  Young 
Learners,  more  especially  for  those  of  the  Fair  Sex,  though 
proper  for  either,  and  Lindley  Murray's  English  Grammar 
were   in   turn   followed   by   an   enterprising  publication  in 


30  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

1829,  called  The  Little  Grammarian.  In  this  book  gram- 
matical terms  are  explained  pictorially  in  a  way  that  might 
well  be  imitated  in  modern  schools.  For  example,  the 
active  voice  is  represented  by  a  teacher  with  upraised  birch 
(hardly  an  apt  illustration  in  the  modern  school) ;  the  passive 
voice  by  the  cowering  pupil  about  to  be  acted  upon;  and 
the  neuter  by  a  child  seated  on  a  chair  near  by  and  in  an 
apprehensive  posture. 

Arithmetics.  Passing  to  textbooks  in  arithmetic,  we  find 
that  these  were  uncommon  among  the  early  colonists.  English 
texts  were  used  before  1788,  the  first  of  these  being  Record's, 
published  in  1540.  The  Dutch  colonists,  with  their  success 
in  commerce  at  home,  believed  in  emphasizing  the  study  of 
arithmetic,  and  one  of  their  regulations  regarding  the  school 
teacher  was  that  "he  is  to  instruct  the  youth  in  reading, 
writing,  cyphering,  and  arithmetic,  with  all  zeal  and  diligence." 
This  subject,  however,  was  not  taught  regularly  throughout 
the  colonies.  In  the  villages  especially  it  was  neglected. 
The  Puritans,  in  their  orders  of  1642,  1647,  and  1650,  make  no 
mention  of  arithmetic.  Governor  Bradford's  Journal  of  1645, 
however,  refers  to  the  fact  that  arithmetic  was  taught  in  the 
so-called  "  free-school  "  of  Boston.  There  seems  to  be  evi- 
dence that  the  dominant  interest  of  the  Puritans  in  religion 
crowded  out  arithmetic  after  the  first  few  years  of  its  exist- 
ence. It  was  taught  in  private  schools  in  and  after  171 2. 
In  Dedham  and  in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  and  in  the  colony  of 
Pennsylvania  there  was  provision  made  for  arithmetic,  if  not 
in  actual  orders,  at  least  in  actual  practice.  Delaware  and 
New  Jersey  probably  gave  attention  to  this  subject  as  a 
means  of  education.  In  the  southern  colonies  the  several 
legislatures  gave  it  a  place  in  their  school  acts. 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  31 

In  the  colonies  the  first  arithmetic  was  Greenwood's,  with  the 
quaint  title,  Arithmetick,  Vulgar  and  Decimal  with  the  Applica- 
tion thereof  to  a  Variety  of  Cases  in  Trade  and  Commerce 
(1729).  It  was  taught  from  a  manuscript  from  which  the 
teacher  dictated  to  the  pupils,  who  in  turn  wrote  the  examples 
in  their  "  sumbooks."  The  first  purely  arithmetical  work 
in  the  United  States  was  an  edition  of  Hodder's  Arithmetic ^ 
Boston  (17 19).  A  better  known  book  is  the  one  written  by 
Nicholas  Pike  and  published  about  1788.  It  was  commended 
by  George  Washington.  Many  of  the  examples  dealt  with 
contemporaneous  history,  as  for  example,  "  General  Washing- 
ton was  born  in  1732;  what  was  his  age  in  1787?  "  How 
many  teachers  to-day  understand  the  following  rule  in  Pike's 
Arithmetic?  "  To  find  the  tare  and  tret  deduct  the  tare 
and  tret  and  divide  the  suttle  by  168,  and  the  quotient  will 
be  the  cloff,  which  subtract  from  the  suttle  and  the  remainder 
will  be  the  neat."  ^  The  book  contains  512  pages,  of  which 
4  deal  with  "  plain  "  geometry,  11  with  "  plain  "  trigonometry, 
45  with  mensuration  of  superficies  and  solids,  33  with  an 
introduction  to  algebra,  designed  for  the  use  of  academies, 
and  10  with  an  introduction  to  conic  sections.  It  is  laden 
with  rules. 

An  Introduction  to  Arithmetic  by  Erastus  Root,  Norwich, 
Conn.  (1796),  was  widely  used  for  a  time.  It  omits  fractions 
"  because  they  are  not  absolutely  necessary."  The  arithmetic 
by  Daniel  Adams  (1801)  was  a  keen  rival  of  the  Pike  text. 
Nathan  Daboll's  Schoolmaster's  Assistant  (1799);    Walsh's 

*  Tare  means  weight  of  a  receptacle  apart  from  its  contents ;  tret  means 
allowance  for  waste  due  to  transportation ;  suttle  means  taken  after  the  tare 
has  been  deducted  and  before  the  tret  has  been  allowed;  doff  means  any 
small  deduction  of  weight ;  neat,  net. 


32  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtidge  It 

Mercantile  Arithmetic,  Northampton,  Mass.  (1800,  revised 
in  1807  and  1826) ;  Thompson's  The  American  Tutor^s 
Guide,  Albany  (1808) ;  The  Science  of  Numbers  Made  Easy 
by  Leonard  Loomis,  Hartford  (1816) ;  The  Scholar^ s  Arith- 
metic by  Jacob  Willetts,  Poughkeepsie,  New  York  (181 7),  of 
which  fifty  editions  were  printed  in  a  few  years,  were  also  in 
fairly  general  use.  The  large  volume  by  Beriah  Stevens 
"containing  Vulgar,  Decimal  and  Logarithmetical  Arith- 
metick,"  Saratoga  Springs  (1822),  was  a  rather  formidable 
treatise. 

Characteristics  of  early  arithmetics.  A  general  characteristic 
of  these  earlier  arithmetics  was  their  emphasis  on  ciphering ; 
but  with  the  publication  of  Colburn's  Intellectual  Arithmetic 
(182 1)  a  new  approach  was  begun.  More  than  two  million 
copies  of  this  book  were  sold  within  the  next  fifty  years.  It 
stresses  oral  exercises  and  practical  problems.  Franklin's 
Arithmetic,  Springfield,  Mass.  (1832),  followed  Colburn,  but 
besides  its  purpose  to  teach  numbers  it  sought  to  develop 
moral  attitudes  toward  creation.  Barnard's  Arithmetic, 
Hartford  (1830),  was  perhaps  the  first  to  use  pictures.  In 
1838  Emerson's  The  North  American  Arithmetic,  Part  Fir  sty 
appeared  with  many  illustrations.  Underhill's  New  Table- 
Book  (1846)  had  several  quaint  jingles  expressing  problems. 

Before  1800  at  least  twenty  arithmetics  by  American  authors 
were  on  the  market.  Among  these,  besides  some  of  those  already 
mentioned,  were  the  following:  Benjamin  Dearborn  (1782), 
Alexander  McDonald  (1785),  Thomas  Sarjent  (1788),  Consider  and 
John  Sterry  (1790),  John  Vinall  (1792),  Benjamin  Workman  (1793), 
Joseph  Chaplin  (1795),  Daniel  Flemining  (1795),  Erastus  Root 
(1796),  James  Noyes  (1797),  Chauncey  Lee  (1797),  William  Milns 
(1797),  David   Kendall  (1797),  Peter   Sharp  (1798),  Zachariah 


A   Brief  History  of  ttie  Textbook  33 

Jess  (1798),  Ezekiel  Little  (1799),  Nathan  Daboll  (1799),  ^^^ 
David  Cook  (1800). 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  aim  of  these  early  texts  and 
consequently'their  selection  of  material  stressed  the  commercial 
side  of  colonial  life.  Arithmetic  was  very  largely  a  vocational 
subject  with  a  people  whose  livelihood  was  obtained  chiefly 
by  trade.  The  titles  of  some  of  the  books  already  referred  to 
indicate  the  general  purpose  quite  clearly.  Daboll  says  in 
the  preface  of  his  Schoolmaster's  Assistant:  "  The  design  of 
this  work  is  to  furnish  the  schools  of  the  United  States  with  a 
methodical  and  comprehensive  system  of  practical  arithmetic. '* 

But  while  this  aim  was  natural  it  does  seem  strange  that  so 
little  emphasis  was  laid  on  making  arithmetic  automatic. 
Dilworth's  text,  for  instance,  contains  only  nine  examples 
for  drill  in  addition,  and  only  nine  in  subtraction.  In  the  408 
pages  of  Pike's  book  there  are  only  m'ne  examples  of  drill  in 
addition,  and  the  same  number  in  subtraction.  Adams  gives 
ten  drill  examples  in  addition,  and  nine  in  subtraction. 

The  following  quotation  ^  indicates  that  even  this  meager 
amount  of  drill  in  the  texts  was  not  used  in  class. 

No  boy  had  a  printed  arithmetic,  but  every  other  day  a  sum  or 
two  was  set  in  each  manuscript,  to  be  ciphered  on  the  slate,  shown 
up,  and  if  right,  copied  into  the  manuscript.  Two  sums  were  all 
that  were  allowed  in  subtraction,  and  this  number  was  probably 
as  many  as  the  good  man  could  set  for  each  boy.  This  ciphering 
occupied  two  hours,  or  rather  consumed  two,  and  the  other  hour 
was  employed  in  writing  one  page  in  a  copy  book.  Once,  when 
I  had  done  my  two  sums  in  subtraction,  and  set  them  in  my  book, 

'  William  B.  Fowle,  TJie  Teaclier's  Institute  or  Familiar  Hints  to  Yaung 
Teachers,  p.  61 ;  and  Walter  S.  Monroe,  Development  oj  Arithmetic  as  a  School 
Subject^  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1917;  No.  10,  p.  16. 

D 


34  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jicdge  It 

and  been  idle  an  hour,  I  ventured  to  go  to  the  master's  desk  and 
ask  him  to  be  so  good  as  to  set  me  another  sum.  His  amazement 
at  my  audacity  was  equal  to  that  of  the  almshouse  steward  when  the 
half-starved  Oliver  Twist  "asked  for  more."  He  looked  at  me, 
twisted  my  manuscript  toward  him,  and  said,  gutturally:  "Eh, 
you  gnarly  wretch,  you  are  never  satisfied."  I  had  never  made 
such  a  request  before,  nor  did  I  ever  make  another  afterwards. 

Algebra  was  not  generally  taught,  but  the  subject  had  been 
introduced.  John  Bonnycastle  in  his  Introduction  to  Algebra, 
published  in  1806,  gives  this  illuminating  problem : 

A  man  and  his  wife  usually  drank  out  a  cask  of  beer  in  twelve 
days;  but  when  the  man  was  from  home,  it  lasted  the  woman 
thirty  days ;  how  many  days  would  the  man  alone  be  in  drinking 
it? 

Geography  was  not  taught  in  the  elementary  schools 
before  the  Revolution.  In  the  more  advanced  schools  some 
rudimentary  instruction  was  given  in  this  subject.  At  first 
geography  was  used  as  reading  material,  but  slowly  it  won  an 
independent  place.  Before  181 5  two  geographies  by  Jedidiah 
Morse  (1784)  and  Nathaniel  Dwight  (1795),  respectively,  had 
appeared.  An  excellent  description  of  these  books  is  given  in 
Johnson's  Old-Time  Schools  and  School-Books.  Maps  were 
scarce,  Morse  giving  two  and  Dwight  none  at  all.  The 
Monitor^s  Instructor,  published  at  Wilmington,  Delaware, 
appeared  in  1804.  Later,  in  1829,  appeared  Peter  Parley's 
Child's  Own  Book  of  American  Geography.  It  abandons  the 
usual  order  beginning  with  elementary  astronomy  and  ending 
with  a  study  of  cities.  Instead,  it  takes  the  young  pupil  on  a 
sight-seeing  trip  through  America.  There  are  many  ques- 
tions, elaborate  pictures,  and  rather  good  maps.    The  book 


A  Brief  History  oj  the  Textbook  35 

was  more  entertaining  than  accurate,  however.  A  little  earlier 
than  this  Benjamin  Davies  published  a  geography  (1813) ; 
Gumming  one  in  1814;  Willard  one  in  1826;  Adams  one  in 
18 1 8.  Worcester  published  his  Elements  of  Geography  in 
1828,  and  Woodbridge  his  Rudiments  of  Geography  in  1829. 
Olney's  A  Practical  System  of  Modern  Geography  was  published 
in  1 83 1,  and  in  the  same  year  The  Malte-Brun  School  Geog- 
raphy was  placed  on  the  market.  All  of  these  early  books 
used  the  octavo  si2e,  but  in  1845  Peter  Parley's  National 
Geography  appeared  in  the  familiar  flat  quarto  shape.  In  1850 
A  System  of  Modern  Geography  was  written  by  Mitchell. 

Languages.  A  glance  at  the  textbooks  in  language  ought 
to  make  us  devoutly  thankful  that  we  did  not  live  in  those 
gloomy  days.  The  schools  of  to-day,  however,  have  not 
altogether  passed  from  under  the  shadow  of  the  type  of 
grammars  used  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew 
were  the  only  languages  taught  in  the  colonies.  Harvard's 
entrance  requirements  at  the  time  included  the  following 
ultimatum :  "  Whoever  shall  be  able  to  read  Tully  or  any 
other  such-like  Latin  author  at  sight,  and  correctly,  and 
without  assistance  to  speak  and  write  Latin  both  in  prose  and 
verse,  and  to  inflect  exactly  the  paradigms  of  Greek  nouns 
and  verbs,  has  a  right  to  expect  to  be  admitted  into  college, 
and  no  one  may  claim  admission  without  these  qualifica- 
tions." 

Studying  began  with  a  simple  Accidence;  then  came  the 
grammar,  which  was  memorized  in  toto.  This  was  followed 
with  Colloquies  by  Corderius  or  Orhis  Pictus  by  Comenius. 

The  most  widely  known  Latin  grammar  of  the  day  was 
Lily's.  This  was  superseded  by  Cheever's  Latin  Accidence ^ 
first  appearing  in  Boston  in  1709,  and  last  printed  in  1838. 


36  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

History.  Before  182 1  no  satisfactory  history  of  the  United 
States  had  appeared.  The  following  year  (1822)  C.  A.  Good- 
rich published  A  History  of  the  United  States.  It  had  a  large 
sale  for  a  dozen  years.  In  many  respects  it  was  an  excellent 
piece  of  work.  Noah  Webster  produced  a  school  History  of 
the  United  States  in  1832.  Similar  works  were  written  by 
Hale,  and  Taylor  (1830),  and  Peter  Parley.  Butler's  Sketches 
of  Universal  History  was  in  use  in  18 18.  It  regarded  history 
from  the  religious  point  of  view.  Frost  published  a  history 
in  1837,  Whelping  a  Compendium  of  History  in  1825. 

General  Criticism  of  Early  American  Schoolbooks.  The 
foregoing  brief  survey  of  the  development  of  textbooks  in  this 
country  indicates  that  many  of  the  subjects  which  to-day 
occupy  a  very  prominent  place  in  the  program  did  not  at  first 
find  favor  among  educators;  arithmetic  and  geography,  for 
examples.  The  early  primers  had  a  distinctly  religious  tone. 
When  we  recall  that  education  was  in  the  hands  of  the  church, 
and  that  at  first  priests  and  ministers  of  the  gospel  were  practi- 
cally the  only  persons  of  any  learning  in  the  community,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  church  and  school  should  have  been  estab- 
lished together.  Gradually,  however,  the  fields  of  the  two 
institutions  began  to  diverge,  and  with  the  separation  came 
textbooks  more  secular  and  comprehensive. 

Judged  by  modern  standards  none  of  those  texts  conformed 
to  the  needs  of  the  pupil,  or  to  the  conditions  of  hygienic 
study.  They  were  miserably  printed,  the  paper  was  of  very 
poor  quality,  and  the  organization  of  the  subject-matter,  in 
the  main,  loose  and  illogical.  To  some  extent,  however, 
psychological  principles  were  recognized  in  the  provision  for 
illustrations.  Some  of  the  problems  in  mathematics  con- 
cerned the  needs  of  the  community.     There  were  many  de- 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  37 

tailed  questions  which  served  as  a  guide  to  a  thoroughgoing 
drill  and  review.  But  the  requirement  of  excessive  memoriz- 
ing was  too  relentless.  This  defect  has  not  been  entirely 
overcome  even  to-day. 

Another  point  worthy  of  notice  is  this,  that  in  the  early 
schools  each  pupil  brought  his  own  textbook  which  may  or 
may  not  have  been  like  the  others  in  the  class.  Each  pupil 
was  taught  from  his  own  book.  Uniformity  was  obtained 
later  through  district  meetings,  and  still  later,  trustees  or 
directors,  and,  in  some  states,  the  teachers  were  ordered  to 
select  the  schoolbooks.  Boards  of  Education,  represented  by 
the  superintendent,  usually  do  the  work  in  towns  and  cities 
to-day. 

The  following  citation  from  a  letter  written  by  Noah 
Webster  to  Dr.  Barnard  in  1840^  throws  some  interesting 
light  upon  conditions  in  the  early  American  public  school. 

When  I  was  young,  the  books  used  were  chiefly  or  wholly  Dil- 
worth's  Spelling  books,  the  Psalter,  Testament,  and  Bible.  No 
geography  was  studied  before  the  publication  of  Dr.  Morse's  small 
books  on  that  subject,  about  the  year  1786  or  1787.  No  history 
was  read,  as  far  as  my  knowledge  extends,  for  there  was  no  abridged 
history  of  the  United  States.  Except  the  books  above  mentioned, 
no  book  for  reading  was  used  before  the  publication  of  the  Third 
Part  of  my  Institute,  in  1785.  In  some  of  the  early  editions  of  that 
book,  I  introduced  short  stories  of  the  geography  and  history  of  the 
United  States,  and  these  led  to  more  enlarged  descriptions  of  the 
country.  In  1788,  at  the  request  of  Dr.  Morse,  I  wrote  an  account 
of  the  transactions  in  the  United  States,  after  the  Revolution; 
which  account  fills  nearly  twenty  pages  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
octavo  editions. 

>  American  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  13,  1865,  pp.  133-34. 


38  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Before  the  Revolution,  and  for  some  years  after,  no  slates  were 
used  in  common  schools:  all  writing  and  the  operations  in  arith- 
metic were  on  paper.  The  teacher  wrote  the  copies  and  gave  the 
sums  in  arithmetic ;  few  or  none  of  the  pupils  having  any  books  as 
a  guide.  Such  was  the  condition  of  the  schools  in  which  I  received 
my  early  education. 

The  introduction  of  my  Spelling  Book,  first  published  in  1783, 
produced  great  change  in  the  department  of  spelling;  and,  from 
the  information  I  can  gain,  spelling  was  taught  with  more  care  and 
accuracy  for  twenty  years  or  more  after  that  period,  than  it  has 
been  since  the  introduction  of  multiplied  books  and  studies. 
(The  general  use  of  my  Spelling  Book  in  the  United  States  has  had 
a  most  extensive  effect  in  correcting  the  pronunciation  of  words, 
and  giving  uniformity  to  the  language.  Of  this  change,  the  present 
generation  can  have  a  very  imperfect  idea.) 

No  English  grammar  was  generally  taught  in  common  schools 
when  I  was  young,  except  that  in  Dilworth,  and  that  to  no  good 
purpose.  In  short,  the  instruction  in  schools  was  very  imperfect, 
in  every  branch ;  and  if  I  am  not  mistaken  it  is  so  to  this  day,  in 
many  branches.  Indeed  there  is  danger  of  running  from  one  ex- 
treme to  another,  and  instead  of  having  too  few  books  in  our  schools 
we  shall  have  too  many. 

The  following  quotation  in  an  essay  by  Noah  Webster  "  On 
the  Education  of  Youth  in  America  "  and  published  in  a  New 
York  paper  in  1788  is  not  entirely  apropos  of  the  present  discus- 
sion but  it  is  so  illuminating  and  prophetic  that  its  introduction 
here  may  be  pardonable.  Discussing  the  defects  in  American 
education  at  the  time  (before  and  during  1788)  he  writes: 

The  first  error  that  I  would  mention  is  a  too  general  attention 
to  the  dead  languages,  with  a  neglect  of  our  own.  .  .  .  This 
neglect  is  so  general  that  there  is  scarcely  an  institution  to  be 
found  in  the  country  where  the  English  tongue  is  taught  regularly 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  39 

from  its  elements  to  its  pure  and  regular  construction  in  prose  and 
verse.  Perhaps  in  most  schools  boys  are  taught  the  definition  of 
the  parts  of  speech,  and  a  few  hard  names  which  they  do  not 
understand,  and  which  the  teacher  seldom  attempts  to  explain: 
this  is  called  learning  grammar.  .  .  .  The  principles  of  any 
science  afford  pleasure  to  the  student  who  comprehends  them.  In 
order  to  render  the  study  of  language  agreeable,  the  distinctions 
between  words  should  be  illustrated  by  the  difference  in  visible 
objects.  Examples  should  be  presented  to  the  senses  which  are 
the  inlets  of  all  our  knowledge. 

Another  error  which  is  frequent  in  America,  is  that  a  master 
undertakes  to  teach  many  different  branches  in  the  same  school. 
In  new  settlements  where  the  people  are  poor,  and  live  in  scattered 
situations,  the  practice  is  often  unavoidable.  But  in  populous 
towns  it  must  be  considered  as  a  defective  plan  of  education.  For 
suppose  the  teacher  to  be  equally  master  of  all  the  branches  which 
he  attempts  to  teach,  which  seldom  happens,  yet  his  attention 
must  be  distracted  with  a  multiplicity  of  objects,  and  consequently 
painful  to  himself  and  not  useful  to  his  pupils.  Add  to  this  the 
continual  interruptions  which  the  students  of  one  branch  suffer 
from  those  of  another,  which  must  retard  the  progress  of  the  whole 
school.  It  is  a  much  more  eligible  plan  to  appropriate  an  apartment 
to  each  branch  of  education,  with  a  teacher  who  makes  that  branch 
his  sole  enjoyment.^ 

The  Rapid  Increase  of  Textbooks.  It  is  noticeable  that 
gradually  the  text  has  found  a  central  place  in  the  American 
school  system.  The  structure  and  contents  of  the  textbook 
have  changed  to  conform  to  the  needs  of  the  successive  periods 
of  social  development.  If  the  age  requires  religious  reflection 
and  theological  programs  of  study,  the  school  and  its  equipment 
must  represent   this  spirit  of   the   times.     If  society  finds 

*  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  Volume  13 ;   124-35. 


40  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

freedom  of  thought  and  investigation  best  for  its  welfare; 
if  invention  makes  possible  broader  knowledge  and  less  rigid 
adherence  to  present  modes  of  living,  the  school  will  reflect 
this  social  attitude,  and  school  equipment  will  be  con- 
structed to  train  the  young  citizen  for  this  type  of  civilization. 
Most  of  the  teaching  to-day  revolves  around  the  text- 
book. This  may  be  regarded  as  distinctly  an  American 
practice.  In  Germany  there  are  no  texts  in  some  subjects. 
In  others  there  are  only  very  brief  texts  which  are  abstracts 
or  outlines  to  be  ampHfied  by  the  teacher.  When  used  they 
are  referred  to  for  review  purposes. 

Neither  the  extremely  American  nor  the  extremely  German 
practice  is  to  be  recommended.  Important  as  the  textbook 
is,  its  function  is  limited.  The  educative  process  needs  to 
go  beyond  any  one  or  any  group  of  texts.  This  extension  of 
method  is  so  current  to-day  that  little  needs  to  be  said  about 
it  here.  On  the  other  hand,  the  textbook  cannot  be  wholly 
ignored.  Wherever  the  instructor  has  begun  his  work,  aiming 
to  avoid  all  texts,  he  has  soon  found  it  necessary  to  guide  the 
learner  by  means  of  a  well-organized  presentation  of  the  funda- 
mentals of  the  course.  This  is  true  especially  in  the  abstract 
subjects,  but  the  need  is  felt  in  laboratory  courses  as  well. 

QUESTIONS   AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  What  vehicles  for  imparting  knowledge  were  used  in  ancient 
systems  of  education? 

2.  What  are  the  more  prominent  features  of  the  texts  used  in 
mediaeval  education? 

3.  Who  were  some  of  the  leading  textbook  writers  of  the  Renais- 
sance? What  were  the  characteristics  of  their  textbooks?  On 
what  subjects  were  texts  written? 


A  Brief  History  of  the  Textbook  41 

4.  How  would  you  describe  the  early  textbooks  in  American 
education?  Why  was  the  religious  influence  so  strong  in  the 
beginning? 

5.  Interesting  problems  for  study  would  be  an  analysis  and 
comparison  of  the  early  and  more  recent  spellers.  What  changes 
in  these  books  have  been  introduced  ?  Is  it  true  that  children  spell 
more  poorly  to-day  than  in  the  early  years  of  American  education  ? 
If  so,  is  this  fact  due  to  the  spellers  used  ? 

6.  When  did  grammar  begin  to  appear  as  a  school  subject  in 
America  ?    When  did  grammars  begin  to  appear  in  America  ? 

7.  When  was  arithmetic  introduced  into  the  American  schools? 
What  were  the  outstanding  characteristics  of  colonial  arithmetic 
texts?    Was  drill  in  arithmetic  generally  given? 

8.  Trace  the  origin  and  development  of  geography  and  history 
in  the  American  public  school.  What  topics  were  stressed  at  first  ? 
What  fundamental  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  organization 
of  these  subjects  to-day? 

9.  What  languages  were  studied  in  the  early  American  schools? 
Why? 

10.   What  do  you  conclude  from  Noah  Webster's  comments  on 
the  schools  he  attended? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey  ,  L  .  H  .    Development  of  Textbooks  of  A  griculture  in  North  A  merica. 

Barnard,  Henry.  "Schools  as  They  Were  Sixty  Years  Ago."  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  13;    1865,  pp.  123-44. 

BoucHET.  The  Printed  Book;  its  history,  illustration,  and  adornment, 
from  the  days  of  Gutenberg  to  the  present  time.  Translated  and  en- 
larged by  Bigemore,  London ;   1887. 

Clodd,  Edward.    Story  of  the  Alphabet.    Appleton ;  1900. 

Ford,  P.  L.     The  New  England  Primer.    Dodd,  Mead ;    1897. 

Greenwood,  J.  M.,  and  Martin,  A.  Notes  on  the  History  of  American 
Textbooks  on  Arithmetic.  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Educ.  Report; 
1897-98,  pp.  789-869. 


42  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Hazlitt,  W.  C.  Schools,  Schoolhooks  and  Schoolmasters.  2d  Ed. 
Stechert;  1905. 

Johnson,  Clifton.  Old-Time  Schools  and  School  Books.  Macmillan ; 
1917. 

Monroe,  Paul.    Principles  of  Secondary  Education.    Macmillan ;  1914. 

Monroe,  W.  S.  Development  of  Arithmetic  as  a  School  Subject.  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Educ.  Bulletin  No.  10;   1917. 

Odell,  a.  G.  "Educational  Tools,  New  and  Old."  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, 80 :  623-5 ;  Dec.  24,  1914. 

Parker,  S.  C.  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education.  Ginn;  191 2. 
Ch.  IV. 

Plomer,  H.  R.    Short  History  of  English  Printing.    London ;    1900. 

Strong,  H.  A.    Old  Textbooks.     Westminster,  Vol.  179:  680-84;  June, 

1913- 
Taylor,  Isaac.    The  Alphabet.    Vols,  i  and  2.    Edward  Arnold. 
Weeks,  L.  B.    Confederate  Textbooks.    U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educ. ;  1900.I 
Young,  J.  W.  A.    In  Hoffman's  Zeitschrift  XXIX ;  Jahrg.  1898,  p.  410  f . 

See  Zur  mathematischen  Lehrbilcherfrage.    An  interesting  set  of 

statistics  on  German  textbooks. 
The  early  volumes  of  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education, 
beginning  with  Vol.  13,  1863,  contain  interesting  catalogues  of  old  and 
contemporaneous  textbooks. 


CHAPTER  m 

THE  TEXTBOOK  — ITS  MEANING  AND  METHODS  OF 

SUPPLY 

In  the  brief  survey  of  the  history  of  the  textbook  it  was 
noted  that  in  the  beginning  of  school  education  few  kinds  of 
textbooks  were  available,  and  then  only  in  very  limited 
quantities,  the  pupil  not  having  any  save  as  he  made  his  own 
from  dictation.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  texts  were  very  largely 
edited  editions  of  the  old  classics.  A  few  more  distinctly  or- 
ganized texts  began  to  appear,  especially  in  Latin  grammar. 
In  the  American  colonies  the  primers  were  at  first  dominated 
by  the  religious  point  of  view.  Later  instructional  books  in 
other  branches  arose,  until  the  textbook  as  a  class  by  itself 
assumed  a  permanent  place. 

The  Textbook  Defined.  Quite  recently  the  question  has 
been  raised  as  to  the  exact  meaning  of  the  term  textbook.  Is 
any  book  used  for  classroom  or  study  purposes  a  textbook, 
or  does  the  meaning  imply  that  the  book  has  been  organized 
for  instructional  purposes  alone?  Shakespeare's  plays,  for 
example,  are  literature,  but  when  edited  with  notes,  excerpts, 
suggestions  for  study,  etc.,  do  they  not  then  become  essen- 
tially textbooks  in  literature?  The  question  is  important  to 
the  extent  that  it  affects  methods  of  teaching. 

A  few  years  ago  a  lengthy  controversy  arose  regarding  the 
exact  meaning  of  textbook,  commercially.    The  Tariff  Act  of 

43 


44  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

1 913  provides  for  the  free  entry  of  all  textbooks,  but  books 
not  especially  provided  for  carry  a  customs  rate  of  15  per 
cent  ad  valorem.  Everyman's  Library  (the  books  that  pro- 
voked the  controversy)  was  classified  by  the  publishers  as  text- 
books inasmuch  as  many  of  the  volumes  were  used  in  the 
public  schools  for  instructional  purposes.  The  Board  of  Ap- 
praisers and  the  Customs  Court  finally  decided  that  this 
series  does  not  fall  within  the  classification  of  textbooks. 

Any  book  may  be  used  for  instructional  purposes  within 
certain  limitations,  but  this  hardly  entitles  it  to  a  place  among 
textbooks  which  have  been  organized  for  sequential  and  in- 
tensive study  under  a  formal  organization.  In  fact,  the 
proper  organization  of  material  is  one  of  the  fundamental 
factors  in  a  sound  textbook.  By  the  aid  of  its  arrangement 
of  subject-matter  both  teacher  and  pupil  may  proceed  psy- 
chologically and  logically  in  the  pursuit  of  a  study.  The 
point  is  obvious  enough,  but  one  finds  in  many  instances  that 
books,  otherwise  valuable,  have  been  introduced  as  texts 
when  they  are  wholly  unsuitable  for  this  purpose.  This  is 
perhaps  more  true  in  literature  and  history  than  in  other 
subjects.  Doubtless  the  most  important  of  all  questions  con- 
cerning the  textbook  is  its  organization  of  subject-matter.  This 
gives  character  and  educational  significance  to  the  book.  The 
textbook  must  be  a  well-systematized  arrangement  of  a  subject 
so  that  its  formal  study  may  proceed  in  an  orderly  sequence. 

Kinds  of  Textbooks.  Various  classifications  of  textbooks 
have  been  made.  Dr.  W.  C.  Bagley  offers  the  following  list : 
readers;  manuals  or  handbooks,  such  as  arithmetic  and 
grammar  texts;  textbooks  proper,  such  as  geographies,  his- 
tories, physiologies,  etc.  The  wider  scope  of  methods,  how- 
ever, requires  a  more  comprehensive  classification. 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  45 

The  following  is  suggested : 

1.  Primers  and  readers. 

2.  Manuals  or  handbooks. 

3.  Textbooks  proper. 

4.  General  literature  when  especially  organized  by  author 
or  teacher  for  study  purposes. 

5.  Periodical  literature  when  treated  educationally. 

6.  Lecture  notes,  syllabi,  and  manuscripts. 

7.  Sunday  School  quarterlies,  Lesson  Leaves  and  Bible 
Study  notes,  such  as  Peloubet's  or  the  series  written  by 
Martha  Tarbell. 

Magazines.  The  sixth  group  in  this  list  finds  little  place 
in  the  public  school  but  it  occupies  a  prominent  (perhaps  a 
too  important)  place  in  college  and  university  instruction. 
Of  the  fifth  group  much  could  be  written.  Its  inclusion  in 
the  public  school  marks  one  of  the  notable  stages  of  advance 
in  the  technic  and  motivation  of  teaching.  Newspapers  and 
magazines  appeal  to  youth,  for  in  them  one  finds  variety, 
simplicity,  and  no  little  beauty  (one  thinks  immediately  of 
such  a  periodical  as  the  **  National  Geographic  Magazine  ")• 
They  are  universally  popular  and  in  daily  use.  The  pupil  who 
is  assigned  work  in  this  sort  of  textbook  feels  that  he  is  doing 
just  what  his  father  and  elders  are  doing  when  they  read  at 
home.  High  school  work  appears  to  him  as  having  connections 
with  life,  and  that  it  is  in  a  true  sense  really  practical.  More- 
over, not  infrequently  the  newspaper  will  reprint  a  novel  by 
Hugo  or  Scott  and  in  this  way  stimulate  interest  in  these  authors. 
The  book  repels  interest  where  the  newspaper  and  periodical 
awaken  zest  in  study.  It  should  be  recalled  that  many,  if 
not  most,  of  the  great  novels  by  English  masters  appeared 
serially.    Perhaps  one  reason  for  the  appeal  of  the  periodical 


46  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

lies  in  its  brevity.  One  does  not  feel  discouraged  at  the  sight 
of  numerous  and  closely  printed  pages  as  with  a  book. 

General  literature.  The  fourth  group  is  in  danger  of  being 
overemphasized.  There  has  been  long  current  the  viewpoint 
that  in  order  to  study  literature  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  a 
Hterary  product  minutely,  well-nigh  exhaustively.  Annota- 
tions by  this  and  that  editor  are  studied,  and  elaborate  notebook 
work  is  required,  until  the  pupil  doubtless  feels  as  the  passen- 
ger on  a  local  train.  There  are  seemingly  more  stops  than  a 
meaningful  approach  to  any  goal.  The  pupil  is  lost  in  the 
wilderness  of  detailed  explanation  and  interpretation,  and 
perhaps  fails  to  get  any  connected  and  artistic  conception  of 
the  masterpiece  assigned  him.  Many  times  the  author's  notes 
are  unsatisfactory,  and  much  time  is  consumed  in  trying  to  find 
them.  For  convenience  it  would  seem  that  explanations  should 
appear  on  the  same  page  as  the  passage  treated,  and  not  at  the 
end  of  the  book. 

Classification  on  basis  of  style.  Another  classification  of 
textbooks  might  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  principles  con- 
trolling the  author's  style  of  composition.  Some  textbooks 
are  purely  theoretical.  The  author  seems  to  have  sought 
only  abstractions,  finding  in  a  pompous  and  obscure  rhetoric 
a  vehicle  for  impressing  the  reader  with  the  madness  of  much 
learning.  Obviously  such  books  have  no  appeal  for  pupils 
in  the  public  schools.  But  many  textbooks  in  mathematics 
and  physics  (not  to  speak  of  the  languages)  have  this  lifeless 
atmosphere. 

On  the  other  hand,  one  finds  the  textbook  made  up  of  a 
bewildering  array  of  facts,  a  collection  of  problems  or  data 
with  no  consistent  organization,  no  pedagogical  foundations. 
The  book  appears  to  be  a  hasty  commercial  enterprise.    The 


I 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  47 

problems  in  most  cases  are  purely  disciplinary.  The  book  is  a 
museum  or  an  exhibit  of  knowledge.  Its  only  purpose  seems 
to  be  to  unfold  certain  parts  of  the  subject  but  not  at  all  to 
develop  vital  initiative,  broad  understanding,  and  genuine  cre- 
ative interest. 

Between  these  extremes  are  the  textbooks  whose  contents 
suffer  with  overfeeding.  Theory  and  facts  and  copious 
explanations  have  been  amassed  in  formidable  bulk  without 
any  apparent  discrimination  of  educational  values.  There 
is  organization  but  it  is  all  on  one  plane.  The  average  teacher 
who  attempts  to  complete  the  course  outlined  in  such  a  book 
will  certainly  break  down  in  the  attempt.  The  author  has 
had  only  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject  in  mind. 
It  may  be  a  valuable  and  up-to-date  discussion,  but  the 
book  gives  little  evidence  that  the  author  had  a  partic- 
ular kind  of  pupil-group  in  mind,  or  any  conception  of 
curriculum  making  as  controls  in  the  organization  of  his 
book. 

A  fourth  kind  of  textbook  does  reveal  evaluation  but  again 
it  is  the  author's  own  reaction.  He  has  not  weighed  the 
material  in  the  light  of  any  carefully  considered  principles 
of  educational  values.  In  history,  for  example,  wars  are,  to 
him,  more  important  than  institutions.  Political  and  military 
dates  seem  to  him  to  be  more  vital  than  industrial  and  eco- 
nomic progress.  The  book  is  overbalanced  with  material  that 
is  either  of  the  traditional  sort  found  in  most  texts  on  the  sub- 
ject, or  the  selection  of  subject-matter  rests  on  a  theory  of 
educational  values  that  apparently  has  not  considered  the 
needs  of  pupils  in  our  modern  industrial  and  democratic  age. 
It  ought  to  be  clear  that  a  textbook  must  represent  a  consen- 
sus of  the  most  modem  opinions  on  the  subject  of  which  it 


48  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

treats.  This  opinion  will  undergo  revision,  and  as  it  changes 
the  textbook  must  be  altered.  A  one-man  textbook  may 
have  many  commendable  features  but  for  the  best  educa- 
tional results  the  book  must  express  the  judgment  of  a  large 
group  of  investigators  who  have  found  certain  emphases  de- 
sirable in  the  respective  subjects. 

There  remains  for  mention  the  textbook  whose  contents 
have  been  selected  and  arranged  with  the  pupils  constantly 
before  the  author.  Their  point  of  view,  the  range  of  interests 
natural  to  their  stage  of  development,  and  the  fundamentals 
of  social  application  possible  by  means  of  his  particular  sub- 
ject, —  these  control  his  organization  and  stimulate  an  easy, 
clear,  attractive  style  which  makes  the  book  what  it  is  intended 
to  be  —  an  introduction  to  knowledge  and  a  means  of  stimu- 
lating and  directing  the  pupil  to  obtain,  largely  by  himself, 
the  salient  data  of  the  subject. 

The  Free  Textbook.  Considerable  discussion  has  arisen 
lately  regarding  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
free  textbook.  Many  citizens  hold  the  opinion  that  inasmuch 
as  they  are  taxed  for  the  support  of  the  public  school  system  it 
ought  to  be  unnecessary,  and  it  appears  to  be  unfair,  to  re- 
quire them  to  increase  their  taxes  by  paying  for  textbooks. 
Many  parents  cannot  afford  to  buy  as  many  books  as  are 
needed.  There  has  been,  for  these  and  other  reasons,  a  steady 
increase  in  the  free  textbook  policy. 

The  earliest  free  textbooks  were  provided  by  cities,  Phila- 
delphia in  1818  being  the  first.  Other  cities  have  found  it 
advisable  to  introduce  free  texts.  Jersey  City  did  so  in  1830 ; 
Newark  in  1838 ;  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1856 ;  Hoboken  and 
Elizabeth,  New  Jersey,  about  i860;  Chester,  Penn.,  in  1864. 
The  first  state  to  pass  a  mandatory  state-wide  free  textbook 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  49 

law  was  Massachusetts  in  1884.    The  following  states  now 
have  similar  free  textbook  laws : 

Arizona  District  of  Columbia    Nebraska 

California  Maine  Nevada 

Delaware  Maryland  New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey  Utah 

Pennsylvania  Vermont 

Rhode  Island  Wyoming 

In  seventeen  other  states  school  districts  may  supply  free 
textbooks  if  they  so  desire : 

Colorado  Kansas  Montana 

Connecticut  Michigan  New  York 

Idaho  Minnesota  North  Dakota 

Iowa  Missouri  Ohio 

South  Dakota  Washington 

Texas  West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

In  New  York  State  textbooks  may  be  furnished  in  any 
city  district  and  in  any  union  free  school  district  by  the  school 
board  if  a  special  tax  is  voted.  In  sixteen  other  states  many 
cities  and  other  districts  are  supplying  free  texts  without  being 
required  to  do  so  by  any  state  legislation. 

In  Missouri,  whenever  provision  is  made  for  free  texts  in  at 
least  the  first  four  grades  in  the  public  schools  of  a  district, 
the  county  subapportions  annually  to  each  such  school  dis- 
trict, from  the  county  foreign  insurance  tax  moneys  received 
from  the  state,  an  amount  to  be  determined  by  multiplying 
the  number  of  children  on  the  last  enumeration  list  by  the 
ratio  used  by  the  state  auditor  in  making  the  distribution  of 


50  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jiidge  It 

such  moneys  among  the  counties  of  the  state.  A  school  dis- 
trict containing  an  incorporated  town  or  city  is  not  entitled 
to  such  aid.^ 

Conditions  in  Colorado  ^  may  represent  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties regarding  free  textbook  administration  elsewhere.  The 
Colorado  law  provides  that  the  purchase  of  free  textbooks  in 
any  school  district  shall  be  at  the  discretion  of  the  quaHfied 
electors.  The  board  of  directors  is  required  to  furnish  books 
free  to  all  children  when  instructed  to  do  so  by  the  voters; 
but  it  is  not  allowed  to  change  an  adopted  text  oftener  than 
once  in  four  years,  nor  to  provide  more  than  one  kind  of  text 
of  the  same  grade  or  branch  of  study  in  the  same  department 
of  a  school.  The  latter  requirement  is  not  generally  observed 
in  the  larger  districts,  but  reports  from  teachers  show  that 
very  few  of  the  rural  schools  are  provided  with  supplementary 
texts  in  reading,  geography,  and  other  subjects. 

About  three  fourths  of  the  children  of  Colorado  are  fur- 
nished with  textbooks  by  the  districts  in  which  they  live.  All 
cities  with  special  superintendents  supply  their  books.  Out 
of  1846  districts  in  the  state  845  (or  about  45  per  cent,  with 
an  enrollment  of  nearly  75  per  cent  of  the  school  children) 
furnish  textbooks  at  public  expense. 

There  is  general  complaint  that  school  directors  in  rural  dis- 
tricts fail  to  supply  books  promptly  and  of  a  proper  kind. 
And  school  directors  complain  that  every  teacher  wants  a 
different  kind  of  book.  The  county  superintendent's  report 
confirms  both  sides  of  the  case.  Many  of  the  books  are  out 
of  date  and  also  in  other  ways  unsuited  to  school  work  in  the 
locality  where  they  are  used.    There  is  practical  uniformity 

^  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educ.  Bulletin,  1915 ;  No.  22,  p.  24. 
*U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educ.  Bulletin,  191 7;  No.  5. 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  51 

in  at  least  ten  counties,  but  in  the  remaining  fifty-two  coun- 
ties there  is  extreme  variety. 

The  U.  S.  Commissioner's  Report  concludes  with  the  recom- 
mendation that  the  free  textbook  law  should  be  made  manda- 
tory instead  of  optional,  in  order  that  all  children  in  the  state 
may  be  furnished  with  proper  books.  Legislation  should  be 
passed  requiring  all  publishers  who  wish  to  do  business  in  the 
state  to  submit  to  the  state  board  samples  of  books  with  the 
net  price  list ;  to  sign  a  contract  agreeing  to  supply  books  to 
school  authorities  at  the  prices  quoted,  which  shall  be  as 
low  as  in  other  states  under  similar  conditions,  and  to  file  a 
bond  of  from  $2000  to  $20,000  to  be  forfeited  in  case  the  con- 
tract is  violated.  The  state  board  should  publish  a  list  of 
books,  the  publishers  of  which  have  complied  with  the  law, 
with  net  prices  for  the  convenience  of  school  authorities  in 
making  their  selections.  The  state  board  should  omit  from 
the  published  lists  any  undesirable  books,  even  if  the  pub- 
lishers have  complied  with  the  state  law  relative  to  the  filing 
of  samples,  price  list,  and  bond. 

General  distribution  of  free  texts.  In  a  study  made  of  school 
administration  in  the  small  cities  ^  it  was  found  that  593 
cities,  of  1257  reporting,  furnished  free  textbooks,  366  being 
in  states  that  require  free  textbooks,  and  227  in  those  that 
permit  them  to  be  furnished  free.  In  530  of  the  593  cities 
where  textbooks  are  provided  free  the  city  board  supplies  the 
books,  while  in  63  cities  the  state  does  so.  In  744  of  the  1257 
cities  reporting,  stationery  and  pencils  are  also  furnished  free. 

The  Advantages  of  Free  Textbooks.  The  following  ar- 
guments in  favor  of  free  textbooks  have  been  presented  from 
time  to  time : 

>  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educ.  Bulletin,  1915 ;  No.  44,  by  W.  S.  Dcffenbaugh. 


52  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

1.  The  cost  is  placed  on  the  district  rather  than  on  the  in- 
dividual ;   there  is  a  lower  per  capita  cost. 

2.  Economy  is  made  possible  through  large  orders.  (The 
Russell  Sage  Foundation  Bulletin  124  says  about  20  per  cent 
is  saved  in  this  way.) 

3.  Books  may  be  changed  with  little  inconvenience  when- 
ever different  texts  are  found  necessary. 

4.  Uniformity  of  textbooks  in  each  school  administrative 
district  is  secured.  This  would  reduce  much  of  the  con- 
fusion in  the  transfer  of  pupils  from  school  to  school.  Many 
superintendents  find  this  to  be  true. 

5.  Poor  children  may  attend  school  equipped  in  this  respect 
as  well  as  the  more  well-to-do  children. 

6.  A  larger  enrollment  is  possible  because  the  cost  to  the 
parent  is  less.  (The  Massachusetts  law  on  free  texts  resulted 
in  a  10  per  cent  increase  in  high  school  enrollment.) 

7.  Everybody  has  a  book,  and  the  school  work  can  start 
promptly  the  first  day. 

8.  Additional  or  supplementary  texts  may  be  provided  for 
the  enrichment  of  the  teacher's  point  of  view,  scope  of  illus- 
trations and  applications.  Such  additional  texts  are  avail- 
able also  for  the  wider  study  of  a  subject  by  the  pupils. 

It  would  seem  that  in  the  effort  to  establish  universal  edu- 
cation nothing  should  be  left  undone  to  bring  educational 
advantages  to  poor  and  rich  alike.  In  the  present  advance 
of  the  cost  of  living,  and  the  danger  of  sacrificing  education 
for  the  business  of  war,  it  is  all  the  more  needful  that  the  state 
make  it  possible  for  everybody  to  share  in  the  benefits  of  pubKc 
school  training.  The  free  textbook  should,  therefore,  be  given 
to  all  who  enroll  in  the  public  schools.  It  would  be  undemo- 
cratic to  provide  free  books  only  for  the  poor.    We  cannot 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  53 

afford  to  single  out  for  public  and  visible  charity  any  boy  or 
girl  in  democracy's  great  agency  of  uplift.  The  textbook  must 
be  free  to  everybody  or  to  none  at  all. 

Disadvantages  of  the  Free  Textbook.  It  must  be  admitted, 
however,  that  free  and  uniform  textbooks  have  certain  dis- 
advantages. These  have  been  summarized  by  Mr.  Monohan 
of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  and  by  others  as 
follows : 

1.  Parents  and  pupils  are  made  to  realize  that  they 
become  wholly  dependent  on  the  state.  They  should  as- 
sume some  of  the  responsibilities  of  education. 

2.  Increased  school  taxes  would  be  necessary  if  free  text- 
books were  provided. 

3.  Children  should  not  be  required  to  use  books  soiled 
by  other  children. 

4.  Free  textbooks  are  likely  to  be  carriers  of  disease. 

5.  By  the  parent  purchasing  textbooks  home  libraries  may 
be  built  up.  The  pupil  would  have  a  collection  of  reference 
books. 

6.  Books  furnished  free  are  not  cared  for  as  well  as  those 
owned  by  the  pupils. 

7.  The  lack  of  the  sense  of  possession  is  a  weakness  in  the 
development  of  self-respect. 

8.  The  free  textbook  cannot  be  marked  and  reorganized 
for  study  purposes  as  conveniently  as  one  owned  by  the  pupil. 

9.  It  is  diflScult  to  recover  books  from  pupils  who  drop 
school  and  move  away.  Hence  the  cost  of  equipment  is  raised 
and  waste  is  increased. 

Some  of  these  argimaents  have  weight.  There  are  parents 
who  expect  too  much  from  the  state.  Many  of  these  parents 
give  but  little  to  society,  but  are  content  to  let  others  pro- 


54  Textbook,  Bow  to  Use  It  and  Jtcdge  It 

vide  them  with  the  advantages  of  a  democracy.  It  doubtless 
is  true  that  handling  books  soiled  by  children  improperly 
trained  in  the  home,  is  objectionable  to  children  with  more 
cleanly  habits.  The  same  disadvantage,  however,  is  found  in 
free  public  libraries  and  in  school  Ubraries.  A  weekly  inspec- 
tion of  the  textbooks  and  drill  in  removing  the  stains  that  can 
be  erased  would  meet  this  objection  to  some  extent. 
•  Unquestionably  the  strongest  argument  against  free  text- 
books is  the  fourth  on  the  list.  They  do  carry  germs  of  in- 
fectious diseases.  A  careful  record  of  pupil  and  home  health, 
however,  and  scrupulous  disinfection  of  all  books  between 
terms  would  relieve  this  condition  to  no  small  extent. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  purchase  of  school  books  by  the  home 
would  greatly  augment  the  home  library.  And  a  library  of 
textbooks  would  be  a  rather  uninteresting  affair.  Besides, 
textbooks  soon  become  out  of  date.  Furthermore,  the 
secondhand  book  business  would  prevent  the  increase  of  the 
home  library. 

If  the  school  teachers  supervise  the  care  of  textbooks  by 
means  of  drills  in  the  care  of  the  book,  it  is  likely  that  the 
school-owned  book  will  be  as  neat  and  well  preserved  as  any 
book  owned  by  the  pupil. 

Employing  the  devices  discussed  in  Chapter  V  would  partly 
answer  the  objections  under  8. 

In  connection  with  the  poHcy  of  free  textbooks  it  is  impor- 
tant for  teachers  to  adopt  some  scheme  of  distributing  and 
supervising  the  care  of  the  books  loaned  to  the  pupils.  A 
record  should  be  kept  of  all  books  given  out ;  a  receipt  or  check- 
ing scheme  for  all  books  returned.  The  pupil  must  be  cau- 
tioned regarding  the  proper  care  of  the  book.  Providing  covers 
becomes  part  of  the  pupil's  responsibility  at  this  point  unless 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  oj  Supply 


55 


the  school  itself  supplies  heavy  manila  covers.    The  follow- 
ing record  card  is  suggested : 

Record  Card  op  Books  Loaned  to  Pupils 


NAME  OF  PUPIL 

GRADE                       SUl 

JJECT- 

- HOME  ADDRESS 

NAME  OF  BOOK 

Condition  o» 
Book 

Dates  of 
Loan 

Condition  or  Book  on 
Return 

Disposition  or 
Book 

New 

Good 

Fair 

Loaned 

Re- 
tumed 

Ex- 
cellent 

Back 
broken 

Tom 
pages 

Sofled 
badly 

Loaned 
again 

Sent  for 
repairs 

Dis- 
carded 

Figure  I 

This  record  card  might  be  kept  by  a  trustworthy  pupil, 
called  the  class  librarian.  If  this  office  is  treated  as  one  of 
responsibility  and  honor,  the  pupils  will  accord  it  respect  and 
serve  its  purpose  conscientiously. 

Uniform  Textbooks.  Another  serious  problem  deals  with 
state  uniformity  of  textbooks.  The  advantage  of  such  a 
policy  lies  in  the  reduction  of  cost  made  possible  by  large 
sales,  and  also  the  ease  with  which  pupils  transferred  from 
school  to  school  can  adjust  themselves  to  new  conditions. 
The  following  states  have  uniform  textbooks : 


Alabama 

Florida 

Indiana 

Arizona 

Georgia 

Kansas 

California 

Idaho 

Kentucky 

56  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 


Louisiana 

Montana 

New  Mexico 

Mississippi 

Nevada 

North  Carolina 

Oklahoma 

Tennessee 

Oregon 

Texas 

South  Carolina 

Utah 

Virginia 

It  has  been  pointed  out  by  investigators  in  this  field  that 
these  states  fall  into  two  large  groups,  the  Southern  and  the 
Plateau  States.  Both  of  these  have  comparatively  new  pub- 
lic school  systems.  Where  pioneer  conditions  seem  to  pre- 
dominate, it  is  important  educationally  that  some  central 
control  unify  growth  until  strength  and  confidence  have  been 
gained  for  more  diversified  organization. 

Arguments  for  and  against  uniformity.  Which  policy  is 
better,  state  uniformity  or  local  option,  has  not  yet  been  finally 
determined.  Doubtless  too  much  of  either  would  prove  detri- 
mental.    Some  writers  on  the  subject  believe  that 

The  unit  of  local  adoption  should  always  coincide  with  the  unit 

of   supervision the   same  authority   that   prepares   the 

course  of  study  and  supervises  its  execution  in  the  schools  should 
select  the  books  that  will  prove  most  effective  in  carrying  out  that 
course  of  study.  .  .  .  Supervision,  course  of  study,  and  adoption 
of  texts  rightly  belong  together.^ 

The  advantage  of  such  a  scheme  is  more  apparent  than 
real,  say  the  proponents  of  state  uniformity.  The  needs 
of  pupils  throughout  a  state  are  not  so  varied  that  wholly 
different  kinds  of  textbooks  are  necessary.  Local  needs  are 
easily  provided  for  by  the  teacher's  supplementary  material. 

1  Cubberley  and  Elliott,  "  State  and  County  School  Administration  —  Source 
Book;"  Macmillan,  1915. 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  57 

Many  local  boards,  with  the  laborious  process  of  adopting 
texts,  would  simply  multiply  a  task  difficult  enough  for  a 
state  board  to  perform. 

Doubtless  few  central  boards  adopt  any  text  without  con- 
sulting with  educational  experts,  who  may  be  expected  to 
understand  the  merits  of  a  good  text.  While  diversity  is 
necessary  in  a  democracy  like  our  own,  there  is  also  need  of 
unifying  agencies,  and  particularly  so  with  a  migratory  popu- 
lation like  our  own. 

The  argument  that  uniform  textbooks  are  desirable  because 
when  pupils  move  from  place  to  place  they  must  change 
books,  may  be  answered  in  two  ways.  First,  the  local  com- 
munity might  buy  the  pupil's  old  books  and  the  money  could 
then  be  used  for  buying  the  new  books.  Second,  while  the 
number  of  high  school  transients  is  large  these  pupils  after 
all  are  in  the  minority.  The  state  must  legislate  principally 
for  majorities.  It  is  not  always  feasible  to  give  recognition 
to  individual  exceptions.^ 

Professor  John  Adams  inquires  whether  national  uniformity 
in  textbooks  is  desirable.^  There  is  a  considerable  amount 
of  material  that  is  taught  everywhere.  Take  the  subject  of 
arithmetic  for  example.  Adams  supposes,  for  the  sake  of 
argument,  that  national  uniformity  in  this  subject  is  possible. 
By  such  national  agreement  social  communication  might  be 
enhanced  to  an  even  greater  degree  than  now  obtains.  Again, 
in  history,  if  a  government  desires  a  special  set  of  books  in 
this  subject,  and  prescribes  them  for  use  in  the  school,  it  can 

*  An  excellent  Summary  of  laws  regarding  Free  Textbooks  and  StaU  Uni- 
formity may  be  found  in  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educ.  Bulletin,  191 5,  No.  36,  by 
A.  C.  Monohan. 

'  Evolution  of  Educational  Theory,  pp.  388-90.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  191 2. 


58  Textbook  y  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

lift  the  new  generation  to  present  ideals  and  purposes  in  a 
comparatively  short  time. 

The  obvious  answer  to  any  proposal  of  national  uniformity 
in  textbooks  is,  of  course,  that  in  this  country  there  is  no  fed- 
eral control  of  education.  But  if  there  were  such  a  central 
authority  it  would  still  be  highly  doubtful  whether  or  not 
such  control  would  be  advisable.  The  hope  of  the  textbook 
situation  is  that  full  and  free  competition  makes  possible 
improved  texts  and  a  change  of  texts  whenever  needed.  It 
would  be  a  gloomy  day  for  education  if  a  central  authority 
or  representatives  of  a  national  party  in  power  dictated  the 
contents  of  study  and  ordered  textbooks  of  an  ultra-biased 
point  of  view. 

If  the  minimum  essentials  in  the  various  subjects  can  be  de- 
termined it  would  perhaps  be  economical  to  have  brief  texts  con- 
taining only  these  fundamentals.  Supplementary  material 
could  then  be  prepared  in  the  form  of  pamphlets,  to  be  used 
only  by  the  teachers.  Such  an  arrangement  would  possibly 
curtail  the  large  quantity  of  material  that  is  now  deemed 
essential  for  pupils  to  study. 

The  Cost  of  Textbooks.  It  is  easy  to  generalize  and  to 
exaggerate  conclusions  regarding  nation-wide  movements  and 
expenditures.  It  is  commonly  believed  that  vast  and  in- 
ordinate sums  are  expended  yearly  on  educational  equip- 
ment. Taking  the  expenditures  in  bulk,  the  figures  do  loom 
large.  Nearly  a  billion  dollars  a  year  spent  on  education, 
directly  and  indirectly,  seems  a  tremendous  outlay  to  indi- 
viduals who  fail  to  estimate  the  cost  of  education  in  compara- 
tive terms.  And  in  the  making  and  buying  of  textbooks  it  is 
quite  popularly  believed  that  too  much  money  is  given  to 
publishing  houses  and  to  authors. 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Study  59 

In  considering  this  subject,  the  cost  of  textbooks,  it  will 
be  interesting  to  consider  first  the  cost  of  making  them. 
When  this  information  is  before  us  it  may  be  that  the  cost 
of  textbooks  to  the  schools  or  to  the  citizens  will  not  seem  as 
exorbitant  as  now  appears  to  be  the  case. 

Cost  of  making  textbooks.  The  making  of  textbooks  is  a 
fine  art,  and  one  which  has  been  slowly  developing  for  many 
years.  Because  it  really  is  a  fine  art,  there  are  varying  de- 
grees of  excellence  among  textbooks.  Some  lack  style,  others 
ride  a  hobby,  some  lack  the  results  of  wide  experience  on  the 
part  of  the  author,  and  many  are  wanting  in  the  essentials 
of  thorough  scholarship.  When  a  textbook  publisher  has  a 
series  of  books  that  have  been  tested  and  not  found  wanting 
—  and  be  sure  that  it  has  taken  years  of  the  hardest  kind  of 
work,  much  money  ventured,  and  much  lost  in  unsuccessful 
experiments  —  he  still  has  before  him  ever-present  troubles 
and  expenses  that  no  one  but  another  publisher  dreams  of. 
A  textbook  must  be  kept  strictly  up  to  date.  Every  history 
that  touches  modern  times  must  have  something  added  to  it 
every  year.  The  United  States  Census  every  ten  years  costs 
the  textbook  publisher,  especially  the  publisher  of  geogra- 
phies, more  in  proportion  than  it  costs  the  government. 
Between  fifteen  and  twenty  thousand  dollars  have  been  spent 
in  a  single  year  after  the  Census  returns  began  to  come  out, 
by  one  publisher  in  correcting  the  plates  of  a  series  of  geogra- 
phies. This  expense  did  not  include  the  loss  of  the  old  stock 
of  books  that  had  to  be  destroyed. 

Moreover,  the  first  cost  of  textbooks  is  vastly  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  books,  first  cost  meaning  the  cost  of  setting 
the  type,  making  electrotype  plates,  and  the  illustrations  and 
maps  where  these  are  required.    And  no  other  books  use 


6o  Textbook  y  Bow  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

maps  and  illustrations  so  abundantly.  The  cost  of  maps  for 
a  series  of  geographies  may  be  forty  thousand  dollars,  and  the 
entire  first  cost  of  such  a  series  more  than  a  hundred  thousand 
dollars. 

The  first  cost  of  a  primer  runs  from  two  to  four  thousand 
dollars,  and  is  always  a  large  sum  because  primers  must  be  abun- 
dantly illustrated  with  the  very  best  pictures  available  for 
the  purpose.  Compare  these  prices  with  that  of  the  ordinary 
novel,  whose  first  cost  will  hardly  exceed  six  hundred  dollars. 
Yet  the  selling  price  of  the  novel  ranges  from  one  dollar  and 
twenty-five  cents  to  one  dollar  and  a  half,  while  the  primer 
sells  for  but  twenty-five  or  thirty  cents. ^ 

The  entire  volume  of  the  textbook  business  in  the  United 
States  is  about  twelve  million  dollars  a  year,  divided  among 
one  hundred  publishers. 

Cost  of  textbooks  to  the  citizens.  The  second  consideration 
under  the  cost  of  textbooks  concerns  the  amount  of  cost  to 
the  consumer.  If  the  state  were  relieved  of  the  burden  of  sup- 
plying texts  would  there  not  be  considerable  reduction  in  taxes, 
—  ask  the  citizens  who  so  easily  exaggerate  ?  But  a  careful 
survey  of  the  cost,  compared  with  other  expenditures,  throws 
a  rather  different  light  on  this  aspect  of  public  education. 
The  following  approximate  outlays  do  not  indicate  that  too 
much  money  is  used  up  in  schoolbooks.  In  the  United  States 
we  spend  approximately  the  following  amounts  per  annum 
for  some  of  our  luxuries  and  necessities : 

Spirituous  liquors $579,000,000,  an  average  of  $5.79  per  person 

Boots  and  shoes 512,000,000,  an  average  of    5.12  per  person 

Tobacco 417,000,000,  an  average  of    4.17  per  person 

Bread  and  bakeries 397,000,000,  an  average  of    3.97  per  person 

iChas.  H.  Thurber,  "What  about  Textbooks?"  Outlook,  Sept.  13,  1913. 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  6i 

Moving  pictures 275,000,000,  an  average  of  $2.75  per  person 

Automobiles 249,000,000,  an  average  of  2.49  per  person 

Agricultural  implements    .     .     .  146,000,000,  an  average  of  1.46  per  person 

Patent  medicines 142,000,000,  an  average  of  i .42  per  person 

Confectionery 135,000,000,  an  average  of  1.35  per  person 

Coffee 100,000,000,  an  average  of  i.oo  per  person 

Chewing  gum 25,000,000,  an  average  of  0.25  per  person 

School  books 17,000,000,  an  average  of  0.17  per  person 

The  enrollment  in  elementary  and  secondary  education  in 
this  country  is  about  19,000,000.  The  annual  cost  of  school 
books  per  pupil  is  approximately  seventy-eight  cents.  About 
two  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  school  maintenance,  support, 
and  equipment  is  spent  annually  on  textbooks.  The  cost  per 
child  on  the  school  population  basis  (5-18  years  of  age)  is 
approximately  fifty-six  and  six- tenths  cents  and  the  annual  cost 
of  textbooks  per  pupil  nearly  seventeen  cents.  These  data 
seem  to  answer  the  second  objection  to  free  textbooks  in  the 
list  on  page  53.  Shown  graphically  the  relative  cost  of 
school  books  appears  as  shown  in  Figure  II  (p.  62). 

The  increase  of  prices  within  the  last  year  will,  of  course, 
raise  the  per  capita  cost  of  school  books,  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  distribution  of  expenditures  as  shown  in  the  table  and  in 
the  graph  will  remain  about  the  same,  i.e.  school  books  will 
hold  approximately  the  lowest  place  in  the  scale  of  expendi- 
tures. 

Convenient  method  of  introducing  free  texts.  If  conditions 
make  it  impossible  to  meet  the  initial  cost  of  providing  books, 
the  gradual  introduction  of  them  as  suggested  by  Cubberley 
is  to  be  commended.     He  says : 

A  good  beginning  might  be  made  by  supplying  in  the  elementary 
schools  everything  except  the  regular  textbooks ;  this  would  prob- 
ably cost  about  $2  per  pupil  per  year,  of  which  about  one  half  would 


62 


Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 


Comparative  Annual  Cost  of  Schoolbooks  and  Some  Other  Articles 
IN  Common  Use  in  the  United  States 


Liquors,  Distilled, 
Malt  and  Vinous  1 

Tobacco  Manufactures  { 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals        { 

Automobiles 

Silks 

Pat.  Med.  and  Druggists'  Prep. 

Confectionery 

Pianos  and  Organs 

Millinery  and  Lace  Goods 

Jewelry 

Boxes,  fancy  and  paper 

Mineral  and  Soda  Waters 

Explosives 

Firearms  and  Ammunition 

Corsets 

Ribbons 

Artificial  Flowers  and  Feathers 

Cash  Reg.  and  Calc.  Mach. 

Buttons 

Sweaters 

Typewriters 

Umbrellas  and  Canes 

Paper  Bags 

Blacking  and  Cleaning  Prep. 

Signs  and  Advertising  Novelties 

schoolbooks 

Phonographs 

Sporting  Goods 

Matches 

Flavoring  Extracts 

Cigar  Boxes 

Toys  and  Games 

Flags,  Badges,  etc. 

Needles,PIns,;and  Hooks  and  Eyes 

Billiard  Tables  and  Materials 

Fountain  Pens 

Labels  and  Tags 

Silk  Stockings 


IN    MTLLIDNS 
010  26       50       75     100     125    150    175    200     225    250    275    800 


Courtesy  of  American  Boot  Company 


This  diagram  is  based  on  the  latest  and  most  accurate  ofl&cial  statistics  —  the 
U.  S.  Census  Bureau  Bulletin,  1910;  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of 
Education,  1911-12;  and  the  separate  reports  of  State  Superintendents  of 
Public  Instruction. 

The  annual  amount  expended  for  textbooks  for  public  schools  is  approxi- 
mately $  12,000,000. 

Figure  II 


7/5  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  63 

be  necessary  for  stationery  and  other  quickly  consumed  supplies, 
while  the  other  half  should  be  expended  on  supplementary  books 
and  other  relatively  permanent  material.  By  spending  this  amount 
for  three  or  four  years,  a  good  supply  of  supplementary  books  and 
other  relatively  permanent  materials  would  be  accumulated  ;  then, 
without  much  increasing  the  annual  costs,  the  district  might  under- 
take to  supply  the  regular  texts  in  the  elementary  schools.  All 
books  would,  of  course,  be  loaned,  not  given,  to  pupils.  When 
the  system  of  furnishing  books  and  supplies  by  the  district  had 
been  once  completely  established,  it  could  be  well  maintained  at 
an  annual  expenditure  not  exceeding  $2  per  pupil  in  the  elementary 
schools.^ 

State  Publication  of  Textbooks.  In  the  effort  to  reduce  the 
cost  of  textbooks,  two  states  have  undertaken  to  produce  their 
own  school  books.  California  and  Kansas,  in  their  efiforts 
along  this  line,  have  not  yet  reached  unanimous  agreement 
that  state  production  is  either  cheaper  or  productive  of  better, 
if  as  good,  texts.  In  discussing  this  subject  Dr.  John  Frank- 
lin Brown  reaches  the  following  conclusions : 

1.  In  no  case  is  lower  cost  to  the  people  proved  if  all  the  expense 
factors  are  taken  into  account. 

2.  Books  produced  under  state  publication  are  always  in- 
ferior in  mechanical  features. 

3.  They  are  often  inferior  pedagogically. 

4.  There  is  often  serious  delay  in  delivery  of  books. 

5.  It  is  difficult  to  change  to  a  better  book. 

6.  Pupils  are  sometimes  limited  to  the  use  of  a  single  book, 
supplementary  books  being  barred. 

7.  The  state  should  engage  in  no  business  enterprise  which 
can  safely  be  left  to  private  effort. 

»  The  Portiand  Survey,  World  Book  Co.,  1914,  p.  161. 


64  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

8.  State  publication  provides  an  easy  road  to  inefficiency  and 
graft. 

9.  It  subordinates  school  interests  to  political  exigencies. 

10.  It  violates  the  professional  spirit  of  teachers. 

11.  It  discourages  authorship  and  competitive  publishing  effort. 

12.  It  emphasizes  cost  rather  than  quality  of  educational 
equipment. 

At  first  glance  it  would  seem  logical  that  the  state  which 
supports  the  public  school  should  also  produce  its  own  educa- 
tional equipment.  In  every  state  there  doubtless  are  persons 
capable  of  writing  texts  of  merit.  But  the  most  serious  ob- 
jection to  this  seemingly  obvious  plan  of  state  publication 
lies  in  subjecting  scholarship  and  educational  progress  to  the 
control  of  politics.  We  do  not  need  to  be  reminded  that  there 
is  altogether  too  much  political  graft  and  chicanery  in  educa- 
tion at  present  without  creating  opportunities  for  more.  While 
true  that  the  present  conditions  prevailing  in  book  adoptions 
are  far  from  ideal,  no  assurance  is  offered  that  state  publica- 
tion would  provide  conditions  more  ideal.  All  of  the  argu- 
ments presented  by  Dr.  Brown  are  valid.  Until  states  like 
Kansas  can  prove  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  that  state 
publication  is  superior  to  the  plan  now  widely  in  vogue,  it 
will  be  wise  to  make  it  possible  for  competing  publishers  to 
produce  even  better  texts,  excellent  as  very  many  of  them 
now  are. 

The  following  data  by  H.  L.  Shirer  of  Topeka,  Kansas, 
throw  light  on  conditions  of  state  publication  in  Kansas. 
In  this  state  where  experiments  in  civic  management  are  cour- 
ageously undertaken,  state  publication  has  been  given  a  fair 
trial.  The  viollowing  table  gives  the  exact  number  of  books 
bought  by  pupils  in  191 2-13  at  the  established  retail  prices: 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply 


65 


TABLE  I 


Books  Sold 


209,568 
68,526 
58,946 
58»47i 
79,"  7 
78,119 

109,691 

132,379 
85,182 

113,938 
40,190 
16,000 
27,758 

254,608 


Trru  Of  Book 

Speller 

First  Reader  .  .  .  . 
Second  Reader  ,  .  . 
Third  Reader .  .  .  . 
Fourth  Reader  .  .  . 
Fifth  Reader  .  .  .  . 
Elementary  Arithmetic 
Advanced  Arithmetic  . 
English,  Book  One  .  . 
English,  Book  Two  .     . 

Civics 

U.  S.  History  .  .  .  . 
First  Hygiene  .  .  . 
Writing 


Rktail  Puck 


II  cents 
II  cents 
19  cents 
25  cents 
33  cents 
44  cents 
28  cents 
39  cents 
22  cents 
39  cents 
44  cents 
55  cents 
30  cents 
5  cents 


Total 


$23,052.48 

7,537.86 

.   11,199.74 

14,617.75 

26,108.61 

34,372.36 

30,713.48 

51,627.81 

18,740.04 

44,435.82 

17,683.60 

8,800.00 

8,327.40 

12,730.40 


$309,947.35 


Against  this  total  the  pupils  turned  in  on  the  exchange  the 
following : 


TABLE  n 


Books  Sold 

Tttle  of  Book 

Exchange  Price 

Total 

88,209 

Speller 

5    cents 

$4,410.45 

10,218 

First  Reader 

5    cents 

510.90 

14,077 

Second  Reader 

8i  cents 

1,196.54 

19,436 

Third  Reader 

i\\  cents 

2,235.14 

30,626 

Fourth  Reader 

15    cents 

4,593.90 

36,422 

Fifth  Reader 

20    cents 

7,284.40 

47,869 

Elementary  Arithmetic     .     . 

12^  cents 

5,983.62 

47,651 

Advanced  Arithmetic   .     .     . 

17^  cents 

8,338.92 

16,940 

Civics 

20   cents 

3,388.00 

41,403 

English,  Book  One  .... 

10   cents 

4,140.30 

54,778 

Grammar 

17^  cents 

9,586.15 

$51,668.32 

66 


l^exthookj  How  to  Use  It  and  Jidge  It 


While  the  gross  sales  amounted  to  ^309,947.35,  the  pupils 
were  paid  for  their  old  books'  ^51,668.32,  making  the  net 
purchases  by  pupils,  ^258,279.03. 

Against  this  statement  should  now  be  placed  the  same 
quantities  of  books,  etc.,  at  state  publication  prices  as  estab- 
lished for  191 7-18.  It  will  be  assumed  of  course  that  more 
books  will  be  sold  this  year  than  were  sold  in  191 2-13  and  that 
the  pupils  thereby  lose  more  because  they  cannot  turn  in  for 
exchange  the  old  books.  That  only  increased  the  total  cost  to 
pupils. 

TABLE  III 


Books  Sold 


Title  of  Book 


State  Publica- 
tion Retail 
Price 


Total 


209,658 
68,526 
58,946 
58,471 
79,117 
78,119 

109,691 

132,379 
85,182 

113,938 
40,190 
16,000 
27,758 

254,608 


Speller 

First  Reader  .  .  .  . 
Second  Reader  .  .  . 
Third  Reader.  .  .  . 
Fourth  Reader  .  .  . 
Fifth  Reader  .  .  .  . 
Elementary  Arithmetic 
Advanced  Arithmetic  . 
Language,  Book  One    . 

Grammar 

Civics 

History 

Hygiene 

Writing 


cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 
cents 


$33,530.88 
15,760.98 
15,915-42 
12,278.91 

19,779-25 
22,654.51 
30,713.48 
51,627.81 
19,591.86 
38,738.92 
12,057.00 
8,320.00 
6,106.76 
20,358.64 


$307,434.42 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  tabulation  that  state-published 
books  have  cost  the  pupils  this  school  year,  191 7-18,  a  total 
of  ^49,155.39  more  than  they  were  paying  for  the  same  books 
under  the  uniformity  law,  when  the  state  had  no  investment 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  67 

and  the  whole  burden  of  financial  responsibility  was  placed 
on  the  publishers. 

The  above  list  does  not  include  all  the  books  being  published 
by  the  state  but  only  books  published  for  the  first  time  this 
school  year.  It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  the  state  has 
established  no  price  that  could  not  easily  have  been  duplicated 
by  contract,  and  has  produced  no  book  from  manuscript  that 
has  developed  any  particular  educational  value  beyond  others 
of  its  kind. 

Furthermore,  it  should  be  noted  that  authors  (there  are  ap- 
proximately thirty-five  thousand  in  this  country)  are  dis- 
tributed over  a  wide  area.  In  no  one  state  is  it  likely  that  all 
the  subjects  have  prominent  specialists.  There  is  also  in 
state  publication  the  false  assumption  that  anybody  who  knows 
a  subject  can  produce  an  adequate  textbook  of  this  subject. 
The  outstanding  weakness  in  textbook  writing  is  not  lack  of 
scholarship,  but  the  lack  of  an  educational  program,  the 
absence  of  any  practical  conception  of  how  the  understanding 
of  a  subject  develops  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  Anybody  can 
throw  together  facts  and  call  it  a  textbook.  To-day,  however, 
we  demand  something  more  educational  than  an  encyclopedic 
textbook.  Many  of  the  latest  textbooks  give  evidence  of  the 
author's  ability  to  organize  subject-matter  from  the  psycho- 
logical as  well  as  from  the  logical  point  of  view,  with  con- 
siderable emphasis  on  the  former. 

Summary.  A  textbook  differs  from  other  kinds  of  books 
in  its  organization  of  material  for  the  purpose  of  formal  edu- 
cation. Its  selection  of  material  aims  to  meet  the  needs  of 
pupils  at  various  stages  in  their  school  career.  While  for- 
merly instruction  and  training  depended  upon  one  book  on  a 
subject,  to-day  there  are  many  kinds  of  books  used  in  class 


68  Textbook^  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

work,  and  besides  these,  periodicals  and  pamphlets  not 
specifically  in  the  textbook  group.  The  extension  of  public 
school  education  and  its  enrichment  of  subject  content  have 
brought  about  the  need  of  free  texts  (without  which  compul- 
sory education  might  be  impossible),  and  a  certain  amount 
of  uniformity  throughout  a  particular  state.  Extreme  local 
option  or  exclusive  state  uniformity  seems  undesirable.  No 
small  problem  in  the  question  of  free  and  uniform  textbooks 
is  that  of  cost.  While  the  cost  of  textbooks  is  less  than  that 
of  other  items  in  school  expenditure  it  is  still  heavy,  both 
from  the  publisher's  and  from  the  consumer's  standpoint. 
The  fact  that  the  consumer  is  the  public  school  system  is  no 
good  reason  for  ignoring  the  item  of  cost.  It  is  important, 
however,  that  taxation  be  liberal  enough  to  make  it  possible 
for  the  educator  to  procure  the  latest  and  the  best  texts,  and 
also  to  supply  a  sufficient  variety  for  each  class  so  that  the 
pupiFs  point  of  view  need  not  be  confined  to  a  one-text  inter- 
pretation of  a  subject. 

QUESTIONS   AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  Define  a  textbook. 

2.  How  would  you  revise  or  supplement  the  classification  of 
textbooks  given  in  this  chapter  ?  Classify  the  kinds  of  books  that 
you  use  for  instructional  purposes. 

3.  When  and  where  were  free  texts  first  used  in  this  country? 
Is  the  free  textbook  universally  used  in  the  United  States? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  free  textbook?  The  dis- 
advantages? Which  of  the  former  and  which  of  the  latter  seem 
to  you  most  significant  ? 

5.  What  are  the  chief  objections  to  state  uniformity  of  text- 
books? 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  69 

6.  How  much  do  the  textbooks  cost  your  community?    Does 
this  cost  exceed  the  average  for  the  country  as  a  whole  ? 

7.  Why  is  state  publication  of  textbooks  undesirable? 

REFERENCES 

Brown,  G.  E.  "  Should  the  State  publish  its  own  textbooks  ?  "  Journal 
of  Education,  81 :   566-67  ;  May  27,  191 5. 

California.  Council  of  Education.  Report.  Sierra  Educational  News, 
Vol.  8 :  222-38,  May,  191 2.  State  Board  of  Education.  "Concern- 
ing high-school  textbooks  in  California."  Sacramento,  1914.  Bul- 
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1909-10.  Sacramento,  W.  W.  Shannon,  Superintendent  State 
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"The  California  textbook  plan."  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  69:  173- 
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Chancellor,  Willlam  E.  "The  government  publication  of  school 
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Commonwealth  Club  of  California.  "  State  textbooks."  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  1912  :  p.  315-74.   8**.    (Transactions,  Vol.  7,  No.  3,  Aug.,  1912.) 

Cornell,  L.  S.  "  State  Uniformity  of  Textbooks."  N.  E.  A.  Proceed- 
ings, 1888;  pp.  225-37. 

CovELL,  L.  E.  "  Should  the  free  textbook  system  be  adopted  ?  "  Min- 
nesota Educational  Association.  Journal  of  Proceedings  and 
Addresses,  1909.   MinneapoUs,  Minn.,  Syndicate  Printing  Company ; 

pp.  151-55- 

Cox,  E.  M.  "  Free  textbooks."  Western  Journal  of  Education,  Vol. 
8 :  89-97  ;  February,  1903. 

CuBBERLEY,  Ellwood  P.  "  Textbooks."  In  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 
Ed.  by  Paul  Monroe.  Vol.  5.  New  York,  Macmillan,  1913.  pp. 
756-78. 

DuTTON,  Samuel  T.,  and  Snedden,  David.  "  Free  textbooks."  In  Ad- 
ministration of  Public  Education  in  the  United  States.  New  York, 
Macmillan,  1908.    pp.  216-23.     (Rev.  ed.,  191 2.) 

Evans,  Lawton  B.  "State  publication  of  textbooks."  School  and 
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70  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

"  The  Facts  about  Schoolbook  costs."  American  School  Board  Journal, 
Vol.  46 :   13-4,  52  ;  March,  1913. 

Faulkner,  Richard  D.  "The  California  State  Textbook  System." 
Educational  Review.     Vol.  20 :  44-60 ;  June,  1900. 

"Free  Textbooks."  Outlook.  Vol.  112:  643-47;  March  22,  1916. 
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Gathany,  J.  M.  *'  Weekly  outline  study  of  current  history."  Outlook, 
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Georgia.  General  assembly.  Schoolbook  Investigating  Committee 
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GiNN,  E.  "  Schoolbooks,  the  Publisher  and  the  Public."  Independent, 
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GuFFiN,  James  T.,  comp.  Report  of  the  hearing  on  schoolbook  legis- 
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resentatives, Lansing,  Michigan.  Feb.  19,  1913  ;  with  an  appendix 
by  the  publisher.     (Chicago,  J.  T.  Guffin,  1913.) 

Hartwell,  E.  C.  "  Magazine  Reading  in  the  High  School."  Inde- 
pendent, Vol.  77  :  451 ;  March  30,  1914. 

Hunting,  W.  J.  "  Free  Textbooks."  In  Nevada  State  Teachers'  Institute 
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1908.    Reno,  Nev.,  pub.  by  the  Association,  1909,  pp.  26-33. 

Jenks,  Jeremiah  W.  "  Schoolbook  Legislation  "  (in  Indiana).  In  his 
Citizenship  and  the  Schools.  Holt,  1906.  pp.  207-64.  (Also  Pol. 
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Klingaman,  O.  E.  "  Textbook  legislation  in  Iowa."  Iowa  City,  State 
Historical  Society  of  Iowa,  191 5.  (Also  Iowa  Jour,  of  Hist,  and  Pol., 
Vol.13:  53-113;  Jan.  191 5.) 

McCray,  D.  O.  "  Kansas,  Wise  and  Otherwise."  Jour,  of  Educ, 
Vol.  80 :    200-2  ;   Sept.  10,  1914. 

McGregor,  Ford  H.  "Free  Textbooks."  American  School  Board 
Journal,  Vol.  36 :  27,  April,  1908. 

Marshall,  William  I.  "  Should  the  public  schools  furnish  textbooks 
free  to  all  pupils  ? "  Chicago  Free  Textbook  Committee  of  the 
Illinois  State  Teachers'  Association,  1898. 


Its  Meaning  and  Methods  of  Supply  71 

Michigan.  Superintendent  of  public  instruction.  "  Textbook  legisla- 
tion." In  his  Sixty-second  annual  report,  1898.  Lansing,  Robert 
Smith  Printing  Co.,  1899.  109  pp.  At  end  of  report,  pt.  3  ;  also 
separately  published. 

Free  textbooks  in  Michigan,  pp.  18-51.    Other  States,  pp.  61-64. 
Textbook  prices,  pp.  65-109. 

MiOTSH,  M.  P.  "New  Way  of  Vitalizing  the  Study  of  History  in 
Schools."     Cur.  Opinion,  Vol.  62  :   242,  Apr.,  191 7. 

MoNOHAN,  A.  C.  "Free  Textbooks  and  State  Uniformity."  U.  S. 
Bur.  Educ.  Bulletin,  1915;  No.  36. 

Nebraska.  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  "  Nebraska's 
Free  Textbook  Law."  In  his  Nineteenth  biennial  report,  1905-07. 
Fremont,  Nebr.,  Hammond  Printing  Company,    pp.  81-91. 

New  York  (State).  Department  of  Efficiency  and  Economy.  Report 
of  investigation  of  the  cost  of  providing  free  textbooks  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1914.    Albany;  Lyon,  191 5. 

Ontario.    Textbook  commission.    Report.    Toronto,  Cameron ;   1907. 

PuLSiFER,  William  E.  "An  Argument  against  State  Publication." 
(New  York,  1914.) 

Robinson,  L.  N.  "  Textbooks  in  Economics."  Sch.  and  Soc,  Vol.  4 : 
990-3  ;  Dec.  30,  19 16. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation.  Division  of  education.  "  Textbook  Legisla- 
tion. In  A  comparative  study  of  public-school  systems  in  the  forty- 
eight  states.    New  York  City  (191 2).    pp.  28-9.  (Pub.  No.  124.) 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Board  of  Education.  "  Free  Books  and  Stationery."  In 
its  Annual  report,  1905,  pp.  241-50. 

"  State  Uniformity  in  high  school  textbooks."    Jour,  of  Educ,  Vol.  82 : 
119,  20;  Aug.  19,  191 5. 

"  State  Distribution  of  Textbooks."    Nation,  98 :  73,  Jan.  22,  1914. 

"  Textbook  and  Supplies."  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Educ.  Bulletin  1910,  No.  2 ; 
162-70. 

TowNSEND,  E.  J.  "  The  Textbook  Question."  Education,  1 1 :  556-65 ; 
May,  1 891. 

"  Waking  up  the  Class :  using  the  '  Literary  Digest  *  in  class  work." 
Lit.  Digest,  Vol.  54:   254;  Feb.  3,  1917. 

Waterman,  S.  D.  "The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a  free  text- 
book system."    Western  Jour,  of  Educ,  Vol.  8 :  362-6 ;  May,  1903. 


72  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

WiNSHiP,  A.  E.  "Textbooks  —  educational,  commercial,  and  politi- 
cal." Jour,  of  Educ,  Vol.  8i :  285-8;  March  18,  1915.  (Also 
in  Amer.  School,  Vol.  i:  69-71;  Mar.  1915.) 

Wisconsin.  Legislature.  Special  textbook  committee.  Report,  191 1. 
Submitted  to  the  legislature,  1913.    66  pp. 

Wyer,  J.  S.,  Jr.  "  Textbooks  and  some  others."  Jour,  of  Educ,  Vol. 
80:  427-8;  Nov.  5,  1914. 

See  American  School  Board  Journal,  "  Textbook  news,"  each  issue,  for 
latest  information. 

Tash,  Thomas.  "  Free  Textbooks  for  Free  Schools."  N.  E.  A.  Pro- 
ceedings, 1888;  pp.  220-5. 


CHAPTER   IV 
THE  SELECTION  AND  JUDGING  OF  TEXTBOOKS 

Selection  of  Textbooks,  the  Business  of  Experts.    For 

many  years  it  has  been  a  popular  principle  of  school  ad  minis- 
tration  that  anybody  at  all  interested  in  the  public  schools 
ought  to  be  able  to  select  textbooks  for  the  various  grades 
and  subjects.  There  are  parents  who  sometimes  vehemently 
insist  upon  a  certain  book  being  adopted  for  the  quite  natural 
reason  that  it  is  cheap.  School  boards,  whose  members 
one  may  assume  are  well  informed  in  their  major  fields  of 
activity,  frequently  regard  themselves  as  experts  in  such 
matters  as  the  selection  of  teachers  and  textbooks,  refusing 
to  delegate  such  expert  service  to  the  superintendent  and  to 
teachers,  who  are  the  logical  experts  in  these  paramoimt  issues 
of  instruction.  The  selection  of  textbooks  is  just  as  technical 
a  problem  as  the  choice  of  tools  for  efficient  work  in  any  in- 
dustry. Now  and  then,  of  course,  there  are  laymen  whose 
opinions  on  teachers  and  textbooks  deserve  careful  consider- 
ation, just  as  one  meets  a  layman  who  can  hit  upon  good  tools 
for  his  amateur  homecrafts.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  layman  de- 
pends upon  the  advice  of  the  bookman  who  is  expected  to 
know  the  selling  points  of  his  books  and  wherein  his  goods  are 
better  than  those  of  a  competitor.  Consequently,  the  sup- 
plying of  books  for  the  millions  of  boys  and  girls  in  our  schools 
only  too  frequently  is  a  purely  business  proposition,  where 

73 


74  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

the  salesman's  personality  and  shrewdness  determine  the 
educational  policy  of  a  school  system. 

The  Bookman,  a  Valuable  Servant  of  Education.  The 
bookman,  however,  very  often  renders  invaluable  service  in 
pointing  out  and  exploiting  the  aims  and  methods  of  the 
author  whose  textbook  he  is  trying  to  sell.  In  the  beginning 
the  author  and  the  pubhsher  were  both  printers  and  salesmen, 
but  as  business  increased  it  became  necessary  to  employ  sales- 
men to  market  the  books.  The  bookmen  have  become  ex- 
perts in  their  various  Hues,  and  in  many  instances  are  con- 
scientious students  not  only  of  current  demands  but  of  the 
more  technical  development  of  the  various  subjects.  By  in- 
troducing the  teacher  and  school  officials  to  new  and  greatly 
improved  texts  the  bookman  helps  to  accelerate  the  progress 
of  educational  methods.  Without  the  bookman's  analysis 
of  his  texts  many  books  would  never  be  examined,  for  school 
administrators  are  busy  people.  They  do  not  have  time  to 
read  many  books.  They  welcome  sincere  help  from  the  book- 
man. They  recognize  that  he  is  a  salesman ;  he  has  goods 
to  sell,  and  his  house  expects  him  to  multiply  big  orders  and 
to  get  long  adoptions.  This  is  business,  and  without  its 
methods  there  doubtless  would  be  Httle  progress  in  any  field. 

But  the  school  administrator  who  is  honest  in  his  purpose 
has  no  patience  with  a  bookman  who  spends  a  half  hour  and 
more  merely  tearing  to  pieces  a  competitor's  books.  In  most 
books  there  are  strong  and  weak  qualities.  The  perfect  text 
does  not  exist.  The  standard  bookman  must  be  well  informed 
in  his  own  field.  If  he  sells  algebras,  he  ought  to  know  the 
subject  itself.  He  may  have  some  one  in  the  teaching  pro- 
fession compose  a  "  Selling  Talk,"  but  it  would  be  better  if 
he  made  a  careful  analysis  of  his  own  and  of  ^his  competitors' 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  75 

books  so  as  to  make  it  definite  wherein  his  books  are  really 
better  than  those  of  his  competitor.  The  fair  attitude  for  a 
salesman  to  take  is  that  '*  our  competitors'  books  are  good, 
but  we  have  sought  to  improve  on  them,  to  include  the  results 
of  most  recent  scholarship  in  this  subject ;  and  here  is  what 
we  offer.  These  are  the  improvements."  The  educator  will 
easily  agree  if  the  new  book  does  present,  very  evidently, 
superior  features. 

"  When  suitable  opportunity  to  meet  teachers  and  superintendents 
is  given  bookmen,  only  good  can  come  from  their  visits.  It  is  a 
maxim  among  bookmen  that  the  busiest,  ablest,  and  most  prom- 
inent school  officials  and  teachers  are  always  the  easiest  to  see. 
It  is  so  rare  when  a  bookman  is  denied  an  interview  or  prevented 
from  prosecuting  his  missionary  work,  that  such  occasions  are  a 
negligible  quantity.  An  insistent,  ill-mannered  individual  may,  it 
is  true,  place  himself  outside  the  pale  of  even  the  generous  courtesy 
of  the  school  world.  Of  course,  there  are  some  narrow-minded, 
self -centered,  all-knowing  school  officials  who  look  upon  the  book- 
man as  an  unnecessary  evil.  Such  men  are  rare;  such  attitude 
being  reflected  in  their  school  activities  elsewhere  usually 
brings  about  severe  criticism.  Trade,  commerce,  and  science 
are  interwoven  together.  Nothing  is  more  anomalous,  illogical, 
and  unjust  than  antagonism  between  publishers,  bookmen,  and 
teachers.  There  should  be  complete  sympathy,  understanding, 
and  concert  between  them.  The  bookman  should  express  this 
policy  in  his  actions  at  all  times.  Courteous,  respectful,  but 
not  apologetic,  anxious  to  perform  his  principal  duty  as 
salesman,  reasonably  jealous  of  the  ethics  and  responsibilities  of 
his  profession,  but  conscious  that  he  is  a  factor  in  the  cause 
of  education  —  such  is  the  acceptable  bookman.  To  my  mind, 
therefore,  the  bookman  belongs  properly  in  the  system  of  education. 
He  has  a  necessary  function  to  perform.    He  will  perform  that 


76  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

function  until  other  parts  of  the  system  develop,  so  that  the  work 
performed  by  him  can  be  better  performed  by  them.  Then,  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  progress  he  will  pass  away.  Until  that 
time  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  he  will  live  his  life  with  the  agencies 
for  good  in  the  schools,  and  do  his  part  towards  reducing  the  num- 
ber of  his  shortcomings,  that  thereby  the  eflficiency  and  well-being 
of  the  schools  may  be  increased." 

The  bookman,  furthermore,  through  his  travels  is  frequently 
able  to  find  authors  for  improved  texts.  In  this  way  he 
may  stimulate  teachers  to  creative  effort  and  to  wide  influ- 
ence, not  to  mention  large  bank  accounts.  He  is  frequently 
called  upon  for  advice  by  the  publisher,  for  the  bookman 
knows,  by  observation,  how  his  firm's  books  stand  the  wear 
and  tear  of  daily  usage. 

Methods  of  Adoption.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  there 
are  numerous  exceptions  to  the  foregoing  conditions.  State 
book  adoption,  while  only  too  often  a  source  of  political 
graft,  is  in  many  instances  determined  by  an  invisible  group 
of  educators  whose  opinions  have  been  sought  by  conscientious 
members  of  the  textbook  committee.  Our  large  city  school 
boards,  as  a  rule,  elect  a  superintendent  who  is  regarded  as  an 
expert  in  school  matters,  and  to  whom  is  delegated  the  pro- 
fessional responsibility  of  selecting  the  teachers  and  educa- 
tional equipment  for  the  schools.  He  in  turn  knows  full  well 
that  no  one  man  can  be  expert  in  all  the  branches  of  school 
work.  Assistant  superintendents,  directors,  supervisors  of 
departments,  and  teachers  are  assigned  duties  properly  within 
their  expert  knowledge.  Upon  them,  especially  the  teachers, 
he  depends  for  a  wise  choice  of  school  books.  The  selection  of 
a  textbook,  even  under  this  systematic  arrangement,  is  no  easy 
task.     Much  reading,  careful  comparison,  and  full  and  frank 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  yy 

discussion  are  needed.  Many  meetings  may  be  required. 
Laborious  and  depressing  labor  Ls  imperative.  But  surely 
this  process,  democratic  and  scientific,  is  far  more  just  to  the 
school  children  than  the  choice  which  depends  solely  upon  a 
whim  or  upon  the  brilliant  canvas  of  a  magnetic  salesman 
presenting  inferior  books  to  an  unscrupulous  political  ^'  an- 
nex "  of  a  corrupt  publishing  house. ^ 

There  is  no  one  universally  approved  method  of  adopting 
textbooks.  Many,  if  not  all,  of  the  best  educators  question 
the  wisdom  of  state  adoption,  for  under  this  form,  it  is  claimed, 
the  influence  of  teachers,  principal,  or  superintendent  is  al- 
most destroyed.  In  cities  and  towns  the  trend  is  strong  to 
place  the  responsibility  of  decision  regarding  textbooks  in 
the  hands  of  teachers  and  their  superior  officers. ,  In  Massa- 
chusetts a  law  of  over  forty  years'  standing  reads : 

"  Changes  may  be  made  in  the  textbooks  used  in  a  town  at 
any  time,  notice  having  been  given  at  a  previous  meeting,  and 
two  thirds  of  the  members  of  the  board  voting  in  the  affirma- 
tive." The  superintendent  is  now  required  to  make  recom- 
mendations regarding  textbooks  to  the  Board  of  Education. 

Bookmen  are  glad,  as  a  rule,  to  have  their  texts  read  by 
well-informed  teachers  rather  than  to  depend  upon  "  the 
influence  of  a  politician,  or  upon  the  relative  of  some  board 
member's  wife,  and  upon  the  enthusiasm  for  a  rival's  wares, 
or  on  someone  who  belongs  to  the  same  college  fraternity 
or  went  to  the  same  preparatory  school." 

There  are,  however,  vicious  methods  more  common  in  the 
past  than  now,  employed  by  unscrupulous  bookmen  without 
any  real  knowledge  of  the  merits  of  a  book,  but  simply  eager 

>  Sec  Educational  Survey  of  Wyoming.  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Educ.  Bulletin,  1916; 
No.  ag;  p.  56. 


78  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

to  swell  business,  to  oust  a  competitor,  or  to  prevent  other 
publishers  from  becoming  competitors.  "  The  bonus  system, 
post-dating  of  bills,  extra  discounts,  cutting  of  prices  when 
times  are  dull,  is  common  enough  in  all  lines  of  trade.  The 
big  bulk  of  American  business  is  honest.  It  could  not  exist 
otherwise."  This  does  not  exclude  the  possibility  of  certain 
kinds  of  salesmen  who  have  a  blunted  moral  sense,  and  who 
interpret  making  good  to  mean  "  put  it  over,"  competing 
with  a  competitor  by  base  methods  often  covered  up  by  the 
attribute  "  shrewd." 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  review  an  article  by 
Frank  A.  Fitzpatrick.^  He  says  that  the  errors  of  book- 
men may  be  grouped  under  four  heads : 

1 .  Discrimination  in  terms  —  giving  to  one  place  better 
rates  than  to  another  in  order  to  secure  business,  some  phase 
of  the  bonus  system,  etc. 

2.  Undue  activity  in  the  politics  of  the  N.  E.  A.  and  State 
Teachers'  Associations. 

3.  Meddling  in  the  affairs  of  the  school,  assisting  teachers 
and  superintendents  to  secure  places,  the  use  of  poHtical  in- 
fluence in  or  outside  of  the  schools. 

4.  Personal  criticism  of  competitors  for  imagined  business 
gain. 

In  considering  these  errors,  seriatim,  Fitzpatrick  confesses 
that  the  first  is  not  altogether  unavoidable.  Personal  feel- 
ings cannot  always  be  ehminated  in  business,  and  publishers 
are  compelled  merely  to  frown  upon  instances  of  unethical 
dealing  on  the  part  of  a  skilled  representative.  If  such  errors 
become  too  gross,  the  managers  and  representatives  can 
make  proper  changes  in  conferences.  The  second  criticism 
1  Educational  Review,  March,  191 2. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  79 

has  hardly  any  foundation  in  fact.  Bookmen,  of  course, 
attend  such  meetings.  They  frequently  are  members  of  the 
association  that  is  in  assembly.  If  they  exercise  alert  attention 
to  what  is  going  on,  and  at  the  invitation  of  superintendents 
or  teachers  discuss  some  of  the  newest  publications,  this  is 
merely  good  business  form. 

The  third  criticism  is  undoubtedly  well  founded  in  some 
instances.  Some  publishers  do  attempt  to  influence  school 
board  elections  so  as  to  procure  political  plums  in  the  form  of 
large  book  adoptions.  Getting  the  ear  of  the  board  is  of 
course  all  essential  and  wholly  legitimate,  but  when  this 
means  bossism  in  ousting  from  office  or  electing  to  office  super- 
intendents and  members  of  school  boards  or  any  others  with 
influence  in  adoptions,  one  cannot  protest  vigorously  enough 
against  a  system  so  pernicious  to  the  weKare  of  the  school 
child.  For  such  political  maneuvering  may  mean  the  pre- 
vention of  any  competition  at  all.  Such  a  publisher  is  seeking 
absolute  suzerainty,  regardless  of  whether  or  not  his  texts 
have  merit. 

The  fourth  error  is  admitted  and  deplored.  Perhaps  the 
best  apology  for  its  common  occurrence  is  that  more  of  it  was 
done  formerly  and  in  much  more  questionable  ways.  There 
is  improvement,  but  when  competition  is  intense  and  big 
orders  are  the  stake,  desperate  measures  are  likely  to  be  used. 

It  is  only  fair  to  add  that  in  the  past  many  school  board 
members  were  perfectly  willing  that  certain  kinds  of  publishers 
should  employ  flexible  business  methods.  There  was  a  time  in 
practically  all  branches  of  business  where  bribes  of  various 
sorts  were  expected.  There  has  been  such  reform  in  this 
matter  that  it  is  now  the  exception  to  find  prospective  cus- 
tomers requiring  "  special  favors  "  in  giving  an  order.    The 


8o  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtcdge  It 

book  business  of  to-day  is  honest  and  dignified.  The  excep- 
tions must  not  bHnd  us  to  the  prevailing  condition.  It  would 
be  impossible  for  pubUshers  of  textbooks  to  continue  long  in 
their  trade  if  they  practiced  illegitimate  business  methods. 

When  Textbooks  Should  be  Adopted.  The  prevailing  time 
for  the  adoption  of  schoolbooks  is  toward  the  end  of  the 
school  year.  The  heaviest  buying  period  is  in  July  and 
August.  If  the  texts  were  ordered  earUer  better  prices  could  be 
obtained  and  freight  delays  avoided  or  greatly  reduced.  The 
following  announcement  from  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education  states  the  issue  very  clearly: 

Earlier  ordering  of  school  textbooks  by  boards  of  education 
offers  a  fruitful  field  for  saving  in  war  time,  according  to  Henry 
P.  Kendall,  of  the  Plimpton  Press,  whose  statement  on  the  subject 
has  been  transmitted  to  the  Bureau  of  Education  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior.  If  school  boards  can  arrange  to  adopt  school 
texts  before  January  first,  asserts  Mr.  Kendall,  instead  of  waiting 
until  the  end  of  the  school  year  in  June,  a  large  saving  in  the 
schoolbook  printing  and  binding  trades  will  result.  Ordering  school 
textbooks  earUer  in  the  year  will,  it  is  declared,  help  to  regularize 
employment  in  the  schoolbook  trade,  making  uniform  hours  of 
work  and  rates  of  pay  possible  throughout  the  year .  In  one  plant  at 
the  present  time  the  hours  of  labor  so  vary  between  winter  and 
summer,  that  on  a  basis  of  loo  per  cent  as  the  flat  weekly  wage, 
operators  during  the  summer  months,  because  of  overtime,  earn 
about  130  per  cent,  and  during  the  winter  months  about  60  per 
cent.  The  workers  are  obliged  to  work  very  long  hours  in  the 
summer  time  and  go  without  vacations. 

Earlier  ordering  of  school  books  will  also  conserve  human 
energy,  because  it  will  make  it  possible  to  run  a  factory  with  a 
minimum  number  of  employees ;  it  will  save  machinery,  because 
less  will  be  required  to  produce ;  and  it  will  save  coal  in  conserving 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  8i 

the  heat,  light  and  power.  Furthermore,  the  efficiency  of  the 
plant  can  be  greatly  increased  where  work  is  uniform  in  quantity, 
and  the  cost  of  production  is  much  less  in  a  plant  where  the  product 
is  produced  more  uniformly. 

How  Texts  Begin  To  Be  Written.  The  textbook  usually 
begins  when  a  teacher  organizes  a  course  in  a  new  way.  Visi- 
tors observe  its  good  qualities  and  perhaps  adopt  some  of  its 
good  points.  The  teacher  or  a  friend  may  inform  the  pub- 
lisher of  the  new  method,  and  if  he  finds  it  worth  careful 
study  he  may  ask  the  teacher  to  submit  a  description  of  the 
method.  The  teacher  soon  finds  that  writing  for  himself  is 
one  thing,  and  that  writing  for  the  publisher  is  a  wholly  dif- 
ferent matter.  In  the  working  and  reworking  of  the  copy 
many  details  are  added,  and  after  much  labor  the  manuscript 
finally  is  finished  and  sent  to  the  publisher.  Editors,  expert 
readers,  and  perhaps  special  authorities  now  read  the  manu- 
script carefully.  It  may  be  accepted  and  still  be  far  from 
satisfactory  in  form.  So  the  manuscript  is  returned  for  re- 
visions and  again  the  author  and  manuscript  have  tedious 
hours  together.  Or  the  manuscript  may  be  rejected  because 
the  author  failed  to  make  himself  understood,  or  because  his 
ideas  are  not  approved  by  the  critical  readers.  Or  it  may  be 
rejected  because  its  educational  theories  are  far  in  advance 
of  present  demands  in  school  practice.  There  probably  would 
be  little  sale  of  the  book  under  such  conditions. 

The  Selection  of  Textbooks 

In  the  bewildering  multiplicaUon  of  textbooks  every  year, 
and  in  the  din  of  praises  sung  by  bookmen  eager  to  sell 
their  books,  it  is  important  to  consider  the  question :    What 


82  Textbook^  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

is  a  good  textbook?  Wherein  is  one  textbook  better  than 
another?  The  final  answer  to  these  questions  is  not  yet 
ready,  but  considerable  progress  has  been  made  toward 
standardization  of  textbooks  in  the  various  subjects.  In  this 
chapter  are  quoted  some  of  the  schemes  that  have  been 
adopted  by  practical  school  people.  The  standards  here 
set  forth  may  suggest  to  other  teachers  and  school  adminis- 
trators ways  and  means  of  constructing  for  themselves 
standards  even  better  and  more  attainable. 

Standards  of  Judging  Textbooks  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
This  plan  was  prepared  by  Miss  Anne  M.  Nicholson,  expert 
for  the  California  State  Board  of  Education.  It  was  accepted 
by  the  Cincinnati  Schoolmasters'  Club,  and  was  reproduced 
recently  in  the  School  Index,  the  official  exponent  of  the 
Cincinnati  school  system. 

1.  Preliminary  investigation  of  expiring  contracts:  to  deter- 
mine local  attitude  toward  the  text  in  use  —  whether  it  is  satis- 
factory or  unsatisfactory,  arid  in  what  particulars ;  (questionnaires 
and  conferences)  to  determine  comparative  merit  of  textbook  in 
use  and  others  on  the  market ;  (tabulation  of  city  and  state  adop- 
tions) to  discover  texts  most  in  favor;  preliminary  examination 
of  the  seemingly  best  texts. 

2.  Result:  the  need  of  a  new  textbook  established  or  denied, 
the  features  in  demand  for  the  new  text  discovered. 

3.  Advertise  for  bids  from  publishers  and  require  submission 
of  texts. 

4.  Investigation  by  expert  readers  of  the  merits  of  the  books 
submitted.  These  expert  readers  should  include  representatives 
from  the  teachers'  college,  the  principals  and  the  active  teaching 
force.  Reports  should  be  made  on  prepared  blank  forms  indicating 
the  standards  to  be  applied. 

5.  Tabulations  of  the  returns  should  be  in  the  hands  of  a 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  83 

committee  and  a  report  made  ol  the  findings  to  the  Superin- 
tendent. 

6.  The  report  of  this  committee  should  be  referred  to  the  text- 
book committee  of  the  Board  of  Education,  who  should  have  the 
bids  and  all  financial  aspects  of  the  textbook  matter  in  hand. 

7.  The  report  of  the  textbook  committee  should  come  before 
the  full  board  of  education  for  final  approval. 

STANDARDS  FOR  TEXTBOOK  ADOPTION 

A  good  text  should  include : 

1.  a  —  Material  whose  scholarly  nature  should  be  not  only 
unquestioned  and  endorsed,  but  apparent. 

b  —  Significant,  essential  facts,  the  selection  of  which  is 
endorsed  by  a  recognized  body  of  experts,  including  teachers  in 
active  service. 

c  —  Such  selection  and  use  of  material  to  give  such  life  and 
color  as  is  organic,  and  does  not  tend  to  obscure  essentials. 

d  —  Such  treatment  of  these  facts  as  will  leave  a  unified 
graphic  impression  of  the  whole,  so  ordered  as  to  be  available  when 
needed. 

e  —  Such  opening  pages  as  connect  with  present  social 
needs  in  as  intimate  a  way  as  possible. 

2.  A  good  textbook  should  include  such  organization  of  essen- 
tial significant  facts  as  meets  the  requirements  of  unity,  definite- 
ness,  and  proportion. 

Unity  —  This  may  be  secured  by  grouping  facts  into  units 
interrelated  among  themselves,  and  having  definite  relation  to 
the  whole.     Captions  should  indicate  these  relations. 

Definiteness  —  This  may  be  secured  by  a  statement  of  the  prob- 
lem or  purpose  at  the  outset,  an  orderly,  graphic  synopsis  at  the 
close  of  each  unit,  an  emphasis  on  "milestones"  of  the  subject, 
and  a  grasp  of  the  relation  to  the  whole  scheme  or  phase  of  experi- 
ence under  consideration. 


84  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Proportion  —  This  may  be  secured  by  paralleling  the  units  in 
minimum  time  allotments  (see  page  64,  New  York  State  Course 
of  Study)  by  pages  of  material.  This  should  not  be  done  to  the 
extent  of  rigidity. 

A  good  text  should  include  graphs,  outlines,  charts,  etc.,  to 
enable  the  pupils  to  see  the  relation  of  the  task  in  hand  to  what  has 
been  accomplished  and  what  remains  to  be  accomplished. 

3.  Style  —  When  containing  discourse,  a  good  text  should  be 
written  in  a  style  that  is  clear,  graphic,  colorful,  dramatic  (when 
possible),  virile,  dynamic  (where  suitable),  intimate,  attractive, 
and  wholesomely  technical  when  economy  and  necessity  de- 
mand. 

4.  Appeal  to  Children  —  A  good  text  should  possess  salient 
qualities  that  appeal  to  children,  e,g. : 

Attractive  exterior. 

Inviting  page  arrangement. 

Illustrative  material  (based  on  action  when  possible). 

*' Picturesque"  titles  of  chapters  and  paragraphs. 

Concreteness,  picturesqueness,  and  intimacy  of  style  (rich  in 
incident,  intimate  in  the  telling). 

Preference  for  short  sentences. 

Abundant  direct  quotations  (where  possible). 

Novelty  and  resourcefulness  in  presentation. 

Cleverly-planned  tasks. 

A  warp  of  children's  everyday  experience. 

Opportunity  for  mastery  of  definite  "  units,  '*  thereby  contributing 
to  the  glow  of  achievement. 

Competitive  schemes  for  review. 

Visual  presentation  of  abstractions  —  graphs,  etc. 

5.  Illustrations — A  good  text  should  include  illustrations  that 
tend  in  size,  character,  and  distribution  to  indicate  the  relative 
importance  or  significance  of  the  content,  e.g. : 

In  history  the  illustrations  should  focus  attention  on  men  and 
events  of  most  far-reaching  influence. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  85 

A  good   text  should  include  illustrations  that  appeal  to  the 
interests  of  children  for  whom  the  text  is  intended. 

A  good  text  should  include  illustrations  that  in  design,  color, 
and  composition  satisfy  the  recognized  canons  of  art. 

6.   Provision    for    Teaching  —  The    teachers'    edition    should 
include : 

An  introduction,  giving : 

A  brief  summary  of  the  best  pedagogical  knowledge  of  the 
subject  treated :   a  review  of  the  experimental  studies  by 
which  these  conclusions  have  been  reached. 
An  evaluated  scale  to  measure  ability. 

A  list  of  a  few  books  immediately  bearing  upon  the  subject  in 
hand. 
The  students'  edition  should  contain : 

a.  An  introduction  cleverly  planned,  intimate  in  style,  to  produce 
a  favorable  first  impression. 

b.  Points  to  be  noted  at  the  beginning  of  each  chapter  or  other 
unit  of  work. 

c.  Corresponding  enumeration  of  vital  points  at  the  close  of  the 
unit. 

d.  Graphic  devices  to  place  the  matter  in  hand  in  relation  to 
what  has  preceded  and  what  is  to  follow. 

e.  Other  interesting  cumulative  reviews  in  the  form  of   com- 
petitive contests. 

/.  Exercises   to   stimulate   intellectual   interest  and   reasoning 
at  the  close  of  each  unit. 

g.  Practical  applications  at  frequent  intervals. 

h.  Interesting  captions  to    tasks,  e.g. :    Things  to  remember, 
Things  to  do.  Things  to  read,  Things  to  think  about. 

i.  Stimuli  for  the  imaginative  use  of   the  information  or  skill 
under  acquisition. 

Debates,  letters  of  composition,  dramatization. 

/.  Interpretative     illustrative     material    with    provisions    for 
studying  the  same. 


86  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

k.  A  comprehensive  index. 

I.  Pronouncing  index,  or  (better)  parenthetical  pronunciation 
of  unusual  proper  names. 

7.  Mechanical  Make-up.  A  good  textbook  should  include  a 
mechanical  make-up  based  upon  accepted  standards  of  hygiene, 
art,  design,  adaptability  to  purpose,  and  upon  sound  prin- 
ciples of  economic  production,  provided  the  last  named  should 
never  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  an  inferior  textbook  be  se- 
lected. 

Hygiene  of  Reading.  Standards  of  typography  have  been 
evolved  from  such  studies  as  those  of  Dearborn,  of  Huey, 
and  others.  The  following  is  a  preliminary  arrangement  of 
these  standards  compiled  from  the  above-named  sources : 
Standards  in  Page  Typography.  Length:  25  mm. — Maxi- 
mum, 90  mm. 

Advantages  of  these  standards: 
No  lateral  movement  required. 
Total  motion  \  as  much  as  with  longer  lines. 
More  words  per  fixation. 
Favors  keeping  what  has  been  read. 
Eases  eyestrain. 

Young  children  need  shorter  lines  than  adults. 
Height :  1.5  mm.  —  minimimi. 

Thickness  of  vertical  stroke :  0.25  —  or  at  most  0.3  mm.    ' 
Space  within  letter  between  vertical  strokes  is  important,  more 
so  than  space   between   letters:    0.3  to  0.5  mm.  within; 
0.5  to  0.75  between. 
Color :  black  and  white  is  better  than  any  combination  for  the 

maximum  amount  of  legibiUty  per  unit  of  space. 
Provision  for  the  distinctness  of  the  upper  half  of  the  letters 
,    hard  to  distinguish,  e.g. :  c  and  e ;  t,  i,  1 ;  k,  h ;  z,  o,  s. 
Space  between  words,  2  mm. 

Space  between  lines :  2.5  mm. ;  of  no  advantage  if  the  type  is 
imdersize. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  87 

Standards  Jot  Younger  Children: 
First  year:   type  2.6  mm. — leading  4.5  mm. 
Second  year :   type  2  mm.  —  leading  4  mm. 
Third  year :  typ>e  2  nmi.  —  leading  4  mm. 
Fourth  year :  typ>e  1.8  nmi.  —  leading  3.6  mm. 
8.  General  Suggestions,     Changesin  type,  italicization,  spacing — 
all  add  to  getting  at  the  gist  of  the  matter,  in  that  they  utilize 
the  indirect  retinal  field. 

There  is  a  distinct  advantage  in  picture  printing  and  the  growing 
utilization  of  graphic  method. 
Range  of  words  read  per  second  —  2.5  to  9.8  (Dewey). 
Everything  that  increases  legibility  by  increasing  the  difference 
between  letters  within  the  prescribed  limits  not  only  relieves  eye- 
strain, but  frees  energy  for  the  work  of  intelligence. 

Illustrations  of  Some  of  the  Foregoing  Principles  in  Textbook 
Making.  History.  The  foregoing  general  principles  are  ex- 
cellently illustrated  in  Dickson's  American  History  for 
Grammar  Schools} 

I.  A  pupil  who  reads  the  opening  Foreword  is  likely  to 
desire  intimate  knowledge  of  what  the  author  has  to  say  about 
the  wonderful  New  World  discovered  by  Columbus.  Being 
very  brief  and  suggestive  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  quote  it  here 
infuU: 

Once  upon  a  time,  as  the  storybooks  say,  a  great  thing  happened 
in  this  old  world  of  ours.  Perhaps  you  know  already  what  this 
great  event  was,  and  will  tell  me  that  I  mean  the  discovery  of 
America.  And  if  I  ask  how  and  when  and  by  whom  this  discovery 
was  made,  perhaps  you  will  be  ready  to  tell  me  that,  too. 

But  you  must  remember  that  so  great  a  thing  as  the  discovery 
of  a  new  world  was  not  accomplished  by  one  man  alone,  nor  was  it 

^  Macmillan,  19x3. 


88  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

accomplished  in  the  single  day  when  Columbus  first  saw  land  after 
his  long  voyage.  Sometimes  we  think  of  it  as  if  a  great  curtain 
had  been  rolled  away  from  before  the  eyes  of  Columbus,  disclosing 
the  whole  continent  of  America ;  so  that  he  had  only  to  go  home  and 
tell  the  king  of  Spain  that  the  New  World  was  discovered. 

This  is  a  very  wrong  idea.  We  must  look  back  many  years  before 
the  time  of  Columbus  to  find  the  beginning  of  the  great  work,  and 
we  must  study  on  to  a  time  many  years  after  his  death  before  we 
can  say  that  Europe  had  really  found  America.  Years  of  toil, 
great  sums  of  money,  the  suffering  and  death  of  many  brave  men, 
were  necessary  before  the  work  was  done.  And  even  then  it  took 
centuries  more  to  find  what  the  new  continent  was  like,  to  settle 
it  with  white  people,  and  to  make  it  useful  to  the  world. 

It  is  not  one  story,  but  many,  that  we  must  read,  if  we  are  to  know 
how  it  all  came  about.  We  must  read  about  old  Europe  and  the 
people  there  before  we  can  know  about  America  and  the  new  nations 
that  were  planted  here  by  European  hands. 

So  let  us  set  out  upon  our  journey,  following  the  white-winged 
ships  on  their  voyage  across  the  blue  waters,  from  the  Old  World 
to  the  New. 

2.  At  the  close  of  the  chapter  oh  "  Holiday  Happenings  "  in 
New  Jersey  the  following  directions  of  study  seek  to  make  the 
pupil's  preparation  of  the  material  in  the  chapter  definite  and 
also  fairly  comprehensive.     For  example : 

THINGS.  TO  REMEMBER 

1.  The  American  army  rapidly  decreased  in  numbers;  both 
soldiers  and  people  were  discouraged. 

2.  Washington  led  his  army  across  New  Jersey,  and  across  the 
Delaware  into  Pennsylvania.  The  British  followed  to  the  river, 
but  stopped  there  for  lack  of  boats. 

3.  Washington   recrossed   the   river,   and   attacked   Trenton, 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  89 

capturing  the  thousand  Hessians  stationed  there.  Comwallis 
hastened  to  Trenton,  but  Washington  by  another  night  retreat 
escaped,  and  proceeding  to  Princeton  attacked  and  defeated  two 
thousand  of  Cornwaliis's  men  who  were  setting  out  to  join  him. 

4.  Washington  then  made  his  way  to  the  heights  of  Morristown 
where  he  was  safe  from  attack. 

The  author  here  gives  a  simple  review,  summarizing  the 
salient  points  in  the  chapter,  setting  forth  clearly  and  briefly 
just  those  facts  that  are  important  for  a  proper  understanding 
of  the  next  lesson.  The  child  is  not  allowed  to  remain  con- 
fused about  these  matters.  The  important  points  are  im- 
pressed upon  the  pupil's  mind  while  he  is  studying  and  not 
after  he  has  appeared  in  class  to  recite. 

Following  this  section  is  an  interesting  list  of  reference 
material : 

THINGS   TO  READ 

1.  The  Story  of  the  Revolution,  Lodge,  pp.  208-27. 

2.  George  Washington,  Scudder,  pp.  156-69. 

3.  Hero  Tales  from  American  History,  Lodge  and  Roosevelt, 
pp.  45-55,  etc. 

Twelve  such  references  are  listed.  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  pages  are  given.  The  pupil  is  guided  economically  and 
definitely  in  this  supplementary  reading.  The  references, 
moreover,  are  of  such  a  nature  as  naturally  appeal  to  children 
of  the  upper  grades. 

Following  this  set  of  directions  the  author  supplies  definite 
assignments : 

THINGS  TO  DO 

I.  Find  the  meaning  of  enlistment,  daunted,  detachments, 
revelers,  carousals,  skirmishing  parties,  reenforcements,  leisurely. 


90  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

2.  Discuss  the  question:  In  what  way  did  Washington  show 
himself  a  great  general  in  this  campaign? 

3.  Prepare  yourself  to  write  an  answer  to  the  question :  What 
were  the  results  of  the  New  Jersey  campaign? 

4.  Think  of  words  which  you  might  use  to  describe  each  of  the 
following  persons :   Washington,  Lee,  Howe,  Cornwallis. 

5.  For  your  portfolio :  Leutze's  Washington  Crossing  the  Dela- 
ware, Ford's  Washington  at  Trenton,  Trumbull's  Battle  of  Prince- 
ton. 

FOR  YOUR  NOTEBOOK 

1.  Make  a  map  to  illustrate  the  New  Jersey  campaign. 

2.  Make  a  "running  outline"  of  the  campaign. 

3.  Write  the  statement  for  which  you  prepared  in  No.  3,  above. 

At  the  end  of  each  chapter  these  sets  of  directions  appear 
in  graded  sequence,  the  author  gradually  leading  the  pupil 
to  greater  independence,  and  to  more  thoughtful  studying. 
The  textbook  is  practically  a  teacher.  In  the  hands  of  a 
well-trained  instructor  it  would  become  doubly  valuable,  for 
author  and  teacher  would  very  definitely  cooperate  in  guiding 
the  young  pupil  to  a  clear  understanding  not  only  of  each 
fact  but  of  how  these  historical  data  belong  to  one  another. 
The  book  is  really  a  story  of  the  development  of  the  United 
States,  a  story  that  children  are  taught  to  appreciate. 

3.  The  pictorial  illustrations  are  abundant,  but  not  too  nu- 
merous. They  are  in  agreement  with  the  text.  At  the  close  of 
the  book  is  a  large  variety  of  illustrations  of  outline  forms  and 
also  a  clear  chronological  chart  of  discoveries  and  explorations. 

Vocational  Mathematics.  An  interesting  example  of  corre- 
lation in  textbook  making  is  furnished  by  William  H.  Dooley 
in  his  Vocational  Mathematics}  In  the  chapter  on  "  Measuring 
1 D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.,  1915. 


The  Selecting  and  Jiuiging  oj  Textbooks  91 

Lumber"  (Chapter  IV)  the  author  gives  a  clear  description  of 
how  wood  is  prepared  for  building  purposes.  In  a  few  sen- 
tences the  pupil  is  given  an  easily  understood  account  of 
how  a  tree  finally  reaches  the  lumber  yard  where  it  becomes 
available  for  the  carpenter.  Then  follow  the  necessary 
definitions,  practical  problems,  and  quick  methods  for  measur- 
ing boards. 

The  chapter  on  "  Blanking  and  Cutting  Dies  "  (Chapter  VII) 
is  equally  interesting  with  its  account  of  how  dies  are  made, 
the  process  being  well  illustrated  by  several  photographs  and 
diagrams.  Similar  correlation  is  made  use  of  in  the  section 
that  deals  with  **  Mathematics  for  Machinists." 

One  finds  that  a  textbook  of  this  type  has  gone  a  long  dis- 
tance beyond  the  formal  and  academic  variety  so  common  in 
our  schools.  The  question  naturally  arises:  Cannot  every 
subject  be  organized  along  these  lines  ?  Why  do  so  few  text- 
book makers  fail  to  sense  the  need  of  illustrating  their  ma- 
terial by  real  life  needs  and  life  facts? 

Civic  Biology.  A  striking  textbook  of  the  newer  type  has 
been  written  by  George  W.  Hunter.  His  Civic  Biology  ^ 
is  everything  that  its  title  implies.  Its  frontispiece  arrests 
attention  at  once.  The  upper  picture  shows  a  crowded 
street  scene  in  the  slums  of  a  large  city.  Below  this  is  a 
photograph  of  a  delightful  home  place  in  the  country.  The 
pictures  do  their  own  moralizing.  In  the  discussion  on 
"Plants  without  Chlorophyll  in  Their  Relation  to  Man"  the 
author  treats  "  fungi,"  "  fungi  of  our  homes,"  "  the  growth 
of  bread  mold,  etc.,"  "  yeasts  in  their  relation  to  man  "  (with 
several  vital  subtopics)  and  "  bacteria  in  their  relation  to 
man."  The  pupil  is  in  touch  with  life  as  he  is  acquainted 
» The  American  Book  Co.,  1914. 


92  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

with  it,  at  least  as  he  has  seen  it  without  perhaps  understand- 
ing its  deeper  significance.  Such  a  book  is  a  guide  to  a 
better  t3^e  of  Hving.  The  teacher  who  uses  this  kind  of 
book  should  not  have  much  difficulty  in  awakening  and 
keeping  active  the  attention  of  every  pupil.  In  fact,  attention 
is  secured  whenever  the  pupil  feels  that  the  school  task  con- 
cerns his  own  life.  One  does  not  need  to  construct  any  scaf- 
folding to  build  up  interest  when  the  pupil  senses  that  the 
teacher  is  dealing  with  topics  that  are  common  everyday 
affairs  out  there  where  boys  and  girls  live  and  dress  and  play. 
Other  Standards  for  Judging  Textbooks.  As  an  example  of 
what  is  being  attempted  in  judging  the  textbooks  in  the  vari- 
ous subjects  the  following  standards  are  given  as  formulated 
by  Superintendent  L.  L.  Forsythe  of  Ionia,  Mich.,  together 
with  others,  who,  with  him,  were  studying  this  problem  at 
Columbia  University  in  the  summer  of  191 5.  Like  practi- 
cally all  present  standards  in  education  it  is  chiefly  suggestive 
and  doubtless  wholly  tentative,  but  the  interested  teacher 
will  find  many  of  its  items  very  helpful. 

SUGGESTIVE   STANDARDS  FOR  ARITHMETIC  TEXTS 

The  Forsythe  Plan 

GENERAL  STATEMENT 

Textbooks  in  arithmetic  should  be  judged  with  reference  to 
the  provision  which  they  make  for  relating  the  child  to  the  more 
important  quantitative  aspects  of  his  life  in  society. 

SPECIFIC   STANDARDS 

I.  Each  new  phase  in  arithmetic  should  be  developed  as 
growing  out  of  the  interests,  experience,  and  needs  of  the  child. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  93 

The  new  phase  of  the  subject  will  thus  present  itself  as  a  problem 
or  project  of  interest  and  value  to  him  and  will  engage  his  efforts 
to  master  it. 

2.  Provision  should  be  made  for  the  economical  mastery  of 
fundamental  facts  and  processes.  To  this  end  the  exercise  of  skill 
in  the  motivating  of  drill  work  and  reviews  should  be  demanded. 
An  author  who  merely  provides  a  series  of  exercises  has  met  only 
the  easier  demands  of  his  task. 

3.  Provision  should  be  made  for  the  development  of  good 
judgment  and  clear  reasoning  power  by  the  solution  of  problems 
which  will  appeal  to  the  child  as  of  value.  The  following  sorts  of 
problems  should  be  considered  here  (these  classes  are  not  to  be 
considered  mutually  exclusive). 

a.  Problems  of  the  home,  playground,  school,  and  social  life. 
h.  Problems  growing  out  of  dramatized  life  situations. 

c.  Problems  in  which  the  child  has  to  make  a  choice  from 
among  data  not  all  of  which  are  involved  in  the  solution. 
This  is  usually  the  way  in  which  problems  are  presented  in 
real  life. 

d.  Problems  in  estimating  heights,  distances,  weights,  cajjacity, 
etc. 

e.  Problems  in  which  results  are  to  be  approximated,  mainly 
as  a  check  on  accurate  solutions  to  follow. 

/.  Problems  which  are  grouped  about  a  single  situation. 
g.   Problems  in  which  numbers  are  not  involved. 
h.  Problems  with  simple  numbers  which  may  be  solved  without 
the  use  of  a  pencil. 

4.  Provision  should  be  made  in  primary  books  especially  for 
enlarging  the  child's  fund  of  number  concepts. 

5.  Problems,  processes,  and  topics  should  be  excluded  from  texts 
when  they  cease  to  have  a  wide  sanction  in  social  usage;  on  the 
other  hand,  new  topics,  new  processes,  and  new  types  of  problems 
should  be  admitted  to  texts  only  after  they  have  been  subjected 
to  this  same  test 


94  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

6.  The  emphasis  placed  on  the  various  phases  of  arithmetic 
included  in  the  text  should  be  in  proportion  to  their  probable  value 
for  the  child. 

7.  Textbooks  in  arithmetic  should  be  adapted  to  the  children 
for  whom  they  are  chosen. 

a.  The  type,  illustrations,  and  language  should  be  appropri- 
ate to  the  age  of  the  children  who  will  use  the  books. 

h.  They  should  be  examined  with  reference  to  any  peculiar 
requirements  not  found  in  the  average  community. 

c.  They  should  make  provision  for  varying  abilities  among 
children  of  the  same  grade  by  the  presentation  of  much 
easy  material,  as  well  as  plenty  of  more  difficult  matter. 

8.  Arithmetic  texts  should  proceed  by  carefully  graded  steps 
from  the  easy  to  the  more  difficult,  both  in  matter  of  processes 
treated  and  problems  presented. 

a.  The  generally  accepted  distribution  of  topics  by  grades 
seems  likely  to  persist  because  of  its  conformity  to  this  de- 
mand and  its  agreement  with  important  psychological  facts. 

h.  If  the  modified  spiral  method  is  followed  in  the  treatment 
of  certain  topics  (and  it  usually  is),  each  successive 
recurrence  to  the  topic  should  involve  more  difficult  phases 
of  it  and  a  varied  method  of  attack. 

9.  Suggestions  should  be  made  for  much  supplementary  work 
growing  out  of  local  interests. 

10.  Provision  should  be  made  in  the  index  for  ready  reference 
to  important  facts  and  topics  scattered  through  the  book.  The 
appendix  should  be  used  for  optional  material,  data  for  problems, 
tables,  definitions,  etc.  These  features  are  of  special  importance 
in  the  more  advanced  books. 

11.  The  teacher  should  be  permitted  some  exercise  of  judgment 
where  more  than  one  course  of  procedure  is  possible  in  the  matter 
of  methods ;  but  too  many  methods  of  doing  the  same  thing  should 
be  discouraged,  as  confusion  is  likely  to  result  in  the  mind  of  the 
child. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  95 

12.  Illustrations  should  make  a  substantial  contribution  to 
the  work  in  hand. 

13.  Textbooks  in  arithmetic  should  exemplify  the  highest 
standards  of  mechanical  make-up  as  determined  by  experts. 

Mr.  Forsythe  devised  the  score  card  (Figure  III)  as  a  means 
of  recording  the  valuations  of  a  series  of  textbooks  in  arith- 
metic. Such  a  card  might  well  be  employed  by  school  ad- 
ministrators and  kept  on  file.  It  is  clear,  convenient,  and 
definite. 

Cincinnati  Standards  in  Arithmetic.  Quite  recently  com- 
mittees on  textbook  recommendations  in  Cincinnati  formu- 
lated sets  of  standards  in  the  several  subjects  where  adoptions 
were  being  considered.  The  general  committee  sent  the  fol- 
lowing note  to  the  several  subcommittees : 

The  general  committee  in  Textbooks  is  desirous  of  having  an 
expression  from  the  various  subcommittees  on  the  arithmetic 
texts  you  have  examined. 

Without  any  intention  to  limit  the  subcommittees'  consideration 
of  the  subject,  the  general  committee  submits  the  accompanying 
outline  of  points  or  topics  which  may  be  found  useful  as  a  guide  to 
a  systematic  examination  of  the  various  texts. 

That  the  work  may  not  be  too  burdensome,  the  general  committee 
suggests  that  you  Ust  only  the  books  which,  in  the  judgment  of 
your  committee,  compose  the  five  best  sets  or  series. 

The  publishers  have  been  requested  by  the  Superintendent  to 
send  samples  of  their  best  publications  to  the  Municipal  Reference 
Bureau,  City  Hall,  for  your  use. 

The  standards  in  arithmetic  were  as  follows : 

I.  Textbooks  in  arithmetic  should  be  judged  with  reference 
to  the  provision  which  they  make  for  relating  the  child  to  the  more 


96  Textbook  y  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtidge  It 


Score  Card 

Standards  in  Outline 

(These  should  be  interpreted  by 

reference  to  full  statement 

above.) 

Appor- 
tioned 
Value 
ON  Ba- 
sis OF 
1000 
Points 

Texts  Judged  and  Values  Assigned 

(Titles  to  be  inserted  here) 

I.   The  problem  form  of 
development     .     . 

TOO 

2.   Skillful  motivation  of 
drill  work  and  re- 
views   

150 

3.  The    nature    of    the 
thought  problems  . 

250 

4.   Provision  for  enlarge- 
ment   of    number 
concept    .... 

25 

5.  The  exclusion  of  ob- 
solete material  and 
worth  of  new  ma- 
terial    

100 

6.   Regard    for    relative 
value  of  topics  in- 
cluded     .... 

7.  Adaptability  to  chil- 
dren of  the  aver- 
age community      . 

75 

8.   Easy  grading  of  pro- 
cesses   and    prob- 
lems     

100 

9.   Suggestions  for  work 
of  local  interest     . 

25 

10.   Appendix  and  Index 

50 

II.  Respect    for    judg- 
ment of  the  teacher 

25 

12.  Relevancy  of  Illus- 
trations  .... 

25 

13.   Mechanical  make-up 

25 

FiGtJRE  III 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  97 

important  number  aspects  of  his  life  in  society.  The  problem 
material  should  be  made  from  social,  economic,  civic,  industrial, 
geographical,  and  historical  data  from  which  the  pupils  learn 
valuable  information  and  into  which  they  put  a  keen  interest. 

SPECmC  STANDARDS 

2.  The  problem  form  of  organization^  i.e.  each  new  phase  in 
arithmetic  should  be  approached  and  developed  as  a  problem 
growing  out  of  the  interests,  experiences,  and  needs  of  the  child. 
How  can  the  mastery  of  this  process,  formal  or  concrete,  help  me, 
as  a  pupil,  to  meet  and  solve  a  situation  I  am  interested  in? 

a.  The  following  sorts  of  problems:  those  of  the  home, 
playground,  school,  social,  and  industrial  life. 

b.  There  should  be  much  material  from  which  the  child  has 
to  make  a  choice  from  among  data  not  all  of  which  are 
involved  in  the  solution  of  the  problem. 

c.  Many  problems  may  at  times  not  involve  nim[ibers,  but 
may  present  situations  which  demand  explanation. 

3.  The  following  material  and  processes  are  considered  obsolete 
and  are  largely  eliminated  by  most  texts  and  courses  of  study  of  the 
last  ten  years: 

a.  The  horizontal  placing  of  numbers  in  the  various  processes. 

6.  The  old  form  of  placing  the  quotient  in  division,  with  the 

old  continued  method  of  pointing  off  in  division  of  decimals. 

c.  Greatest  conmion  divisor  and  least  conmion  multiple. 

d.  Unreal,  simple  and  complex  fractions. 

e.  Reduction  in  denominate  numbers  of  more  than  three 
places. 

/.  Rules  and  explanations  for  processes  not  to  be  explained  in 
light  of  modern  authority,  as  inverting  and  multiplying  in 
the  division  of  fractions. 

g.   Formula  and  rules  of  methods  in  percentage. 

h.  Troy  and  Apothecaries'  Weight. 


98  Textbook^  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

i.  Longitude  and  Time  with  more  than  15  degrees  unit. 

;'.  True  Discount. 

k.  Partial  Payments. 

/.    Annual  and  Compound  Interest. 

m.  Foreign  Exchange. 

n.  Equation  of  Payments. 

0,   Cube  Root. 

p.  Topical  plan  of  arrangement. 

4.  Children's  interests  and  activity  should  be  provided  for  in 
the  way  of  number  games,  construction  work,  etc.  Work  in  the 
fundamentals  should  grow  out  of  such  material. 

5.  Pictorial  aids.  Illustrative  pictures;  diagrams,  tables, 
graphs ;   devices  should  be  numerous. 

6.  Excellence  of  drill.  Frequency.  A  large  factor  is  the  amount 
of  motivated  drill  work. 

7.  Provision  for  individual  differences  of  pupils.  There  is  a 
growing  need  for  this.  There  should  be  a  minimum  for  all ;  but 
provision  should  also  be  made  for  additional  work  for  brighter 
pupils. 

Klapper's  Standards  in  Arithmetic.  An  excellent  state- 
ment of  the  qualities  of  a  good  textbook  in  arithmetic  is  given 
by  Klapper.V  (i)  The  text  must  first  of  all  be  graded  so  that 
its  language,  forms  of  exercises,  explanations,  and  definitions 
may  be  suited  to  the  progressive  stages  of  the  course.  No  one 
book  can  adequately  supply  this  need.  The  bulky  Complete 
Arithmetic  must  be  replaced  by  a  series  of  books,  each  book 
covering  the  work  of  a  grade.  (2)  A  satisfactory  text  in 
arithmetic  is  rich  with  a  variety  of  well-graded  exercises  and 
forms  of  application.  It  is  quite  impossible  for  the  teacher 
to  find  time  to  make  such  collections  of  exercises.  The  author 
of  the  text  is  expected  to  make  the  book  practical  along  these 
*  Teaching  of  Arithmetic.     D.  Appleton  Co.,  1916;  p.  68-70. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  99 

lines.  (3)  These  exercises  must  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
changing  localities.  No  one  text  can  be  comprehensive  enough 
to  meet  all  the  needs  that  may  arise.  Consequently  standard 
texts  are  adapted  to  local  conditions.  (4)  The  problems 
must  also  be  designed  for  both  oral  and  written  solution.  (5) 
It  probably  is  best  to  furnish  the  pupils  with  answers  to  the 
problems.  These  answers  help  him  to  check  his  work  and 
to  test  its  accuracy.  The  answer  stimulates  effort  and  may 
serve  to  evolve  a  mode  of  solving  the  problem.  (6)  A  good 
textbook  in  arithmetic,  furthermore,  gives  clear  and  simple 
explanatory  statements  of  new  matters,  diagrammatic  illus- 
trations of  quantitative  relations,  a  complete  index,  and  such 
additional  directions  as  will  help  the  pupil  to  help  himself. 

Smith's  Standards.  Writing  on  this  subject,  David  Eu- 
gene Smith  ^  says  that  the  kind  of  textbook  which  the  world 
has  found  most  usable,  and  probably  rightly  so,  is  that  which 
possesses  these  elements :  (i)  A  sequence  of  propositions 
which  is  not  only  logical,  but  psychological ;  not  merely  one 
which  will  work  theoretically,  but  one  in  which  the  arrange- 
ment is  adapted  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil;  (2)  exactness  of 
statement,  avoiding  such  slipshod  expressions  as,  "  A  circle  is 
a  polygon  of  an  infinite  number  of  sides,"  "  Similar  figures  are 
those  with  proportional  sides  and  equal  angles,"  without  other 
explanation ;  (3)  proofs  given  in  a  form  which  shall  be  a  model 
of  excellence  for  the  pupil  to  pattern  after;  (4)  abundant 
exercises  from  the  beginning,  with  practical  suggestions  as 
to  methods  of  attacking  them ;  (5)  propaedeutic  work  in  the 
form  of  questions  or  exercises,  inserted  long  enough  before  the 
propositions  concerned  to  demand  thought;  that  is,  not 
immediately  preceding  the  author's  proof. 

^  The  Teaching  of  Elemenkwy  Mathematics.     Macmillan,  1903. 


loo  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Geometry.  —  A  series  of  considerations  relative  to  deter- 
mining merits  of  textbooks  in  geometry  have  been  offered  by 
David  Eugene  Smith.^    He  writes : 

It  becomes  necessary  in  weighing  the  merits  of  a  textbook 
to  consider : 

1.  If  the  number  of  proved  propositions  is  reduced  to  a  safe 
minimum ; 

2.  If  there  is  reasonable  opportunity  to  apply  the  theory,  the 
actual  applications  coming  best,  however,  from  the  teacher  as  an 
outside  interest ; 

3.  If  there  is  an  abundance  of  material  in  the  way  of  simple 
exercises,  since  such  material  is  not  so  readily  given  by  the  teacher 
as  the  seemingly  local  applications  of  the  propositions  to  outdoor 
measurements ; 

4.  If  the  book  gives  a  reasonable  amount  of  introductory  work 
in  the  use  of  simple  and  inexpensive  instruments,  not  at  that 
time  emphasizing  the  formal  side  of  the  subject ; 

5.  If  there  is  afforded  some  opportunity  to  see  the  recreative 
side  of  the  subject,  and  to  know  a  little  of  the  story  of  geometry 
as  it  has  developed  from  ancient  to  modern  times. 

He  quotes  from  Proclus  as  follows : 

It  is  essential  that  such  treatise  should  be  rid  of  everything 
superfluous,  for  the  superfluous  is  an  obstacle  to  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge ;  it  should  select  everything  that  embraces  the  subject, 
brings  it  to  a  focus,  for  this  is  of  the  highest  service  to  science; 
it  must  have  great  regard  both  to  clearness  and  to  conciseness, 
for  their  opposites  trouble  our  understanding;  it  must  aim  to 
generalize  its  theorems,  for  the  division  of  knowledge  into  small 
elements  renders  it  difficult  of  comprehension. 

*  The  Teaching  of  Geometry,    Ginn,  191 1,  p.  71. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks ''  ^'-'^idi 

The  entire  Chapter  VII  in  Smith's  book  deserves  careful 
study  by  teachers  of  geometry.  Examples  of  recent  texts 
in  Geometry  are  given  at  the  close  of  Chapter  IX. 

Illustrations  of  Modem  Texts  in  Arithmetic.  Among  the 
several  texts  that  apply  many  of  the  foregoing  principles 
are  the  books  of  the  Walsh-Suzzallo  series.^  The  books  are 
well  graded,  and  have  an  abundance  of  "  real  "  problems. 
A  striking  feature  of  these  books  is  the  "  boxing  in  "  of  ex- 
planatory material  or  model  examples,  a  device  that  eliminates 
visual  confusion.  The  pages  are  attractive  in  type  compo- 
sition. The  least  attractive  part  of  the  series  is  the  color  of 
the  covers.  One  gets  the  impression  that  the  book  is  unduly 
cheap  looking.     No  answers  are  provided. 

The  Gilbert  Arithmetics  ^  contain  a  large  selection  of  practical 
exercises.  The  printing  is  clear  but  the  page  seems  crowded. 
A  unique  feature  of  the  series  is  the  summary  at  the  end  of 
each  chapter,  given  in  outline  form.  Valuable  examples  of 
mechanical  drawing  are  given  in  the  chapter  on  denominate 
numbers. 

Texts  in  General  Mathematics.  Nowhere  is  the  tendency 
to  break  away  from  traditional  program-making  so  well  il- 
lustrated as  in  the  organization  of  general  courses  in  mathe- 
matics and  in  science.  More  texts  seem  to  have  appeared  in 
general  science  than  in  general  mathematics.  Teachers  in 
these  fields  are  not  universally  convinced  that  the  new  courses 
based  on  correlation  and  careful  evaluation  of  material  will 
prove  as  effective  as  what  appears  to  be  the  more  thorough- 
going procedure  of  the  traditional  organizations  of  courses 
in  these  fields.  There  are  many  teachers,  however,  who  are 
definitely  committed  to  the  newer  type  of  courses.  Educa- 
*  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1914.  •  Macmillan,  1913. 


io:2  Texthook,  Raw  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

tional  psychology  and  economic  considerations  provide  abun- 
dant reasons  for  the  development  of  traditional  high  school 
mathematics  and  science  into  the  organizations  now  being 
tested.  In  this  connection  it  is  worth  while  to  remind  ourselves 
that  one  of  the  fundamental  weaknesses  of  our  present  type 
of  program  of  study  on  every  level  of  the  school  system,  in- 
cluding the  college,  is  the  lack  of  coordination  or  correlation 
between  the  several  courses,  wherever  such  correlation  is  mani- 
festly patent.  Any  attempt  to  unify  educational  material 
deserves  the  cordial  attention  of  every  teacher  concerned. 

Perhaps  the  most  notable  scheme  of  correlation  in  the 
field  of  mathematics  is  that  evolved  by  Ernest  R.  Breslich. 
His  three  volumes  on  First,  Second,  and  Third  Year  mathe- 
matics, respectively,  demonstrate  the  possibilities  and-  advan- 
tages of  the  new  conception  of  teaching  this  large  subject. 
There  is  at  least  unconscious  assent  among  bookmen  to  the 
truth  that  the  ideal  textbook  must  be  the  cooperative  work 
of  individuals  who  are  subject  experts,  and  who  are  well 
trained  in  the  psychology  of  the  learning  process  and  in  the 
application  of  the  principles  that  properly  control  the  learning 
of  a  subject.  To  write  a  textbook  wholly  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  logical  analysis  of  the  subject-matter  may  produce  a 
very  learned  and  comprehensive  treatment  of  the  subject, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  this  very  mode  of  textbook  construc- 
tion may  be  wholly  unsuitable  for  the  arousing  of  interest, 
for  the  prevention  of  unnecessary  difficulties  and  confusion, 
and  for  the  development  of  a  mathematical  consciousness  that 
leads  to  a  continuous  and  well-motivated  pursuit  of  this  sub- 
ject. 

The  pupil  in  the  high  school  is  naturally  prejudiced  against 
mathematics.     It  is  needlessly  difficult,  because  it  is  vaguely 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks         103 

presented  and  rigorously  developed  in  its  segregated  forms. 
Algebra  is  wholly  isolated  from  geometry  and  the  teacher  in 
neither  course  makes  use  of  the  large  amount  of  related 
material  at  his  disposal.  Consequently  the  pupil's  early 
knowledge  of  mathematics  is  narrow,  confused,  bookishly 
abstract,  and  formal.  One  need  not  wonder  over  the  an- 
tagonism that  has  been  quickened  by  this  type  of  education. 
Mr.  Breslich  has  succeeded  in  organizing  a  general  math- 
ematics course  that  is  both  psychological  and  administratively 
practicable.  He  has  had  the  pupil  very  clearly  in  mind  in 
each  course.  There  are  numerous  directions  for  studying 
the  various  units  of  the  subject.  Model  solutions  are  copious, 
but  at  the  same  time  well-motivated  provisions  for  inde- 
pendent studying  abound  in  the  three  volumes.  Photographs 
of  various  kinds  of  construction  work  are  introduced  as  illus- 
trations of  the  practical  value  of  geometry.  The  many  ex- 
ercises are  astonishingly  real ;  they  touch  life  at  almost  every 
point.  Their  abundance  and  variety  make  citations  difficult. 
The  following  may  serve  to  illustrate  how  Mr.  Breslich  has 
kept  the  high  school  pupil  in  mind : 

The  length  of  the  school  hall  is  /  feet.  I  go  through  the  hall  6 
times  on  Monday,  8  times  on  Tuesday,  4  times  on  Wednesday, 
6  times  on  Thursday,  and  10  times  on  Friday.  How  many  feet  do 
I  travel  along  the  hail  during  the  week  ?  {First  Year  MathematicSy^ 
p.  25.) 

The  running  track  in  the  playground  is  y  yards.  While  in 
training,  I  run  around  it  6  times  on  Monday,  8  times  on  Tuesday, 
10  times  on  Wednesday,  12  times  on  Thursday,  and  14  times  on 
Friday.     How  many  yards  do  I  run  during  the  week?     {Ibid.) 

At  noon  a  thermometer  read  3°  below  0°.    In  the  evening  it 

» The  Chicago  Press. 


I04  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

was  8°  warmer.  How  many  degrees  did  the  thermometer  read 
in  the  evening?     {Ibid.,  p.  185.) 

A  boy  wishes  to  know  how  far  it  is  from  the  shore  of  a  lake 
at  A  to  an  island,  B,  Fig.  122  at  C,  20  yd.  "from  A  on  the  line  BA. 
He  lays  off  CDA.CB  and  CD  =  60  rods.  At  A  he  constructs  a  line 
perpendicular  to  AB  meeting  DB  at  E.  By  measuring  he  finds 
AE  =  ^o  rods.  Find  the  required  distance.  {Second  Year 
Mathematics,  p.  113.) 

A  contractor  needs  40,500  bricks  for  a  building.  His  experience 
has  shown  that  usually  3.5  per  cent  are  spoiled.  How  many 
bricks  must  he  order?     {Ibid.,  p.  215.) 

The  size  of  a  man's  hat  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  inches  in 
the  diameter  of  a  circle  of  length  equal  to  the  distance  measured 
around  the  head  where  his  hat  rests.  What  size  of  hat  does  a  man 
need,  the  distance  around  whose  head  is  2  2f  inches  ?    {Ibid.,  p.  298.) 

A  trunk  30  in.  long  is  just  large  enough  to  permit  an  umbrella 
36  in.  long  to  lie  diagonally  on  the  bottom.  How  much  must  the 
length  of  the  trunk  be  increased  if  it  is  to  accommodate,  diagonally,  a 
gun  4  in.  longer  than  the  umbrella?  {Third  Year  Mathematics,  p.  83.) 

Originally  the  great  pyramid  of  Cheops  was  480  ft.  9  in.  high 
and  the  side  of  the  square  base  was  764  ft.  long.  Owing  to  the 
removal  of  coating  the  measurements  are  now  746  ft.  and  460  ft. 
respectively.    How  much  stone  has  been  removed  ?     (/^'<f.,  p.  289.) 

Among  the  other  attractive  features  of  these  books  are 
the  summaries  at  the  close  of  the  chapters,  a  study  device 
that  has  obvious  advantages.  Historical  notes,  portraits  of 
famous  mathematicians,  and  brief  biographical  sketches  lend 
ornamentation  and  human  interest  to  the  course.  The  last 
chapter  of  Third  Year  Mathematics  is  a  syllabus  of  all  the 
theorems  of  plane  and  solid  geometry  studied  in  the  first  two 
years.  By  this  provision  the  pupil  finds  reference  material 
and  direction  in  reviewing. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks         105 

Qualities  of  Textbooks  in  Chemistry  and  Physics.  In 
writing  on  the  principles  governing  instruction  in  these  sub- 
jects Smith  and  Hall  ^  write  that  the  book  should  give  a  plain 
account  of  the  subject  without  too  much  pedagogical  pre- 
tense. It  should  be  accurate  in  its  statements  and  present 
a  view  of  science  as  closely  approximating  that  of  the  scientist 
as  may  be  possible  in  an  elementary  course.  The  common 
elements  and  not  too  many  compounds  should  be  studied. 
Works  of  reference  should  be  consulted.  The  spirit  of  the 
book  should  be  inductive,  the  laws  really  forming  summaries 
of  facts  which  have  been  considered.  Theories  must  find 
their  place  as  related  to  facts  and  should  follow,  not  precede, 
the  study  of  the  facts.  The  general  treatment  should  be 
connected,  logical,  lucid,  making  evident  the  unity  of  the 
subject. 

General  chemistry  should  be  treated  as  a  pure  science, 
and  not  as  an  arrangement  introducing  analysis.  Formulae 
should  be  kept  in  their  proper  places  and  shown  to  be  recep- 
tacles for  the  results  of  the  study  of  each  action.  They  are 
not  to  be  considered  as  ends  of  the  subject.  Careful  ex- 
planations should  be  made  as  to  how  facts  are  translated  into 
formulae. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  regarding  all  textbooks  in  scientific 
subjects  that  they  should  be  carefully  evaluated  according  to 
the  capacities  and  needs  of  the  various  grades  in  the  school. 
This  means  that  only  basal  material  should  be  considered. 
Confusion  of  many  details  should  correspondingly  be  avoided. 
Many  technical  names  are  equally  undesirable.  Illustrations 
should  deal  with  practical  applications  as  far  as  possible. 
Problems  should  introduce  the  pupil  to  his  own  community, 
*  The  Tucinng  oj  Chemistry  and  Physics.     Longmans,  1904,  p.  185. 


io6  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

and  then  to  a  wider  range  of  interests,  care  being  taken,  how- 
ever, not  to  overemphasize  home  application. 

Geography  Standards  in  Cincinnati.  The  committee  on 
textbooks  in  Cincinnati  composed  the  following  standards 
for  books  on  geography: 

1.  Quality  of  Home  Geography  material.  More  remote  geo- 
graphical ideas  and  concepts  are  based  upon  immediate  ex- 
perience. Rich  descriptions  of  how  peoples  struggle  for  the 
necessities  of  life  and  of  their  everyday  industry  and  intercourse 
should  make  definitional  geography  purely  secondary.  Land  and 
water  physical  features  should  be  treated  from  the  standpoint  of 
their  effects  on  man's  life. 

2.  Up-to-dateness  of  data.  Statistical  data,  political  and  pro- 
duction maps  and  charts  should  be  recent  and  clear. 

3.  Fullness  of  type  study.  Typical  industrial  activities  of 
sections,  rich  descriptive  matter,  used  as  a  means  to  an  end  for 
holding  pupils*  interest  and  fixing  the  necessary  place  location 
facts,  should  characterize  geographical  textbooks. 

4.  Good  habits  of  study.    These  should  be  provided  for  by 

a.  Directions  in  how  to  study,  together  with  real  problem 
topics,  questions,  and  suggestions. 

b.  Good  organization  of  subject-matter,  matter  of  appeal- 
ing interest  to  children  and  not  disconnected  facts  that 
might  appeal  to  the  more  adult  mind. 

c.  Closely  associated  matter  so  that  there  is  a  natural  progress 
from  lesson  to  lesson. 

d.  Frequent  reviews  and  comparisons  with  our  own  country. 

5.  Well-graded  material.  Is  there  a  proper  division  of  material, 
as  to  kind  and  quantity,  between  primary  and  advanced  books, 
with  new  material  for  each  grade  ? 

6.  Life  consequences.  A  study  of  earth  conditions  as  they  affect 
man  in  his  social,  political,  and  economic  life  is  the  real  mission 
of  geography. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks         107 


Standards  for  Readers.  The  bewildering  number  of  pub- 
lications in  this  field  makes  the  selection  of  a  suitable  series 
all  the  more  complex.  The  following  standards  recently 
used  in  Cincinnati  and  in  Decatur  suggest  valuable  modes  of 
procedure. 

I.  Content 


I.  Thought 


3.  Form 


a.  Rich  in  variety. 

b.  Arranged  in  series ;  seasonal,  social,  ethical,  civic,  etc. 

c.  Adapted  to  needs  of  pupil  and  community. ' 

d.  Literary  style  and  quality. 

e.  Well-arranged  and  systematic  development  of  phonics. 

a.  Vocabulary  arranged  to  secure  sufl6cient  repetition  yet 

without  sacrifice  of  thought. 

.  ,.      ,    ,  „        J   1  f  Within  each  book. 

b.  Vocabulary  weU  graded  I  ^.^y^,^^^ 

c.  Paragraphing. 


II.  Mechanical  Make-up 


I.  Binding 


Type 


3.  Lines 


4.  Illustrations. 


:.    Paper  < 


e; 


Durability. 
Attractiveness. 

Quality. 

Gloss  —  lacking. 
Size. 

Clearness, 
Width  of  leading. 
Arrangement  of  lines,  so  that  natural  word  groups  are 

not  broken. 
At  top  or  bottom,  or  on  separate  page. 
Attractive,  clear,  simple,  and  full  of  action. 
Educative  and  suitable  for  grades. 


In  Decatur,  Illinois,  the  following  sets  of  standards  were 
employed  in  191 5  in  judging  readers. 


CHARACTER   OF  CONTENTS 

1.  Provision  for  variety  of  motive. 

2.  Provision  for  organization  of  ideas. 


io8  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtcdge  It 

3.  Provision  for  discovery  of  relative  values. 

4.  Provision  for  initiative  by  pupils. 

5.  Gradation  in  regard  to  interests  and  experiences  of  pupils. 

6.  Does  content  afford  opportunities  for  different  children  to 
find  some  relation  to  their  own  peculiar  interest  or  experiences  ? 

7.  Can  the  children  enter  into  the  atmosphere  of  the  stories? 

8.  Does  the  subject-matter  appeal  to  the  child's  love,  humor, 
imagination,  activity,  reason? 

9.  Do  the  lessons  furnish  a  stimulus  to  further  thought? 

10.  Does  the  text  help  in  forming  a  foundation  for  the  apprecia- 
tion of  Uterature? 

11.  Does  the  text  carry  a  sustained  interest? 

12.  Does  the  text  have  some  material  adapted  for  special  days, 
dramatizations,  and  varied  types  of  reading? 

13.  Is  there  opportunity  for  varied  and  natural  expression? 

14.  Are  the  lessons  isolated,  grouped,  or  continuous? 

15.  Will  the  text  tend  to  produce  eager,  independent  readers? 

16.  How  many  pages  are  not  adapted  for  use  by  all  the  children  ? 

VOCABULARY 

1.  Gradation  in  regard  to  work  difficulty,  sentence  structure, 
mechanical  arrangement  on  page. 

2.  Are  the  lessons  of  suitable  length? 

3.  Are  the  words,  phrases,  and  sentences  of  the  first  half  of 
the  primer  easy  and  natural  for  the  beginners? 

4.  Are  the  words  used  in  the  text  those  needed  in  the  child's 
everyday  vocabulary,  and  in  reading  supplementary  readers? 

5.  Can  new  words  be  mastered  largely  through  the  context? 

6.  Does  the  reading  matter  lend  itself  to  word  grouping? 
k/  7.   Does  the  vocabulary  increase  slowly  enough? 

8.  Does  the  text  sufficiently  increase  the  child's  vocabulary? 

9.  Is  provision  made  for  motivated  reviews? 

"^  10.   Is  repetition  provided  at  ever-increasing  intervals? 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks         109 

11.  Is  there  sufl5ciently  frequent  repetition  of  words  in  different 
relations  to  each  other  to  assure  recognition? 

12.  Is  there  too  much  repetition  so  that  memory  is  depended 
upon  rather  than  word  recognition? 

13.  Is  the  material  so  organized  that  a  thorough  phonic  course 
may  be  formed  leading  to  independent  reading? 

14.  Does  the  text  tend  to  strong  word  mastery? 

BiETHOD  HELPS 

1.  Is  there  a  gradual  progression  through  the  series? 

2.  Is  the  teacher  helped  to  grow  in  ability  to  get  intelligent 
expressive  reading  from  the  classes  ? 

3.  What  suggestions  are  made  for  helping  the  pupil  when  he 
does  not  know  the  needed  word  ? 

4.  Which  makes  the  best  provisions  for  drills? 

5.  Does  the  subject-matter  lend  itself  to  good  habits  of  study? 

6.  Is  there  enough  material  for  independent  seat  work? 

7.  Can  the  inexperienced  teacher  get  good  results  from  the 
use  of  this  text  ? 

8.  Does  the  text  open  opportunities  for  growth  in  method  to 
the  experienced  teacher? 

9.  Is  adequate  help  given  the  second-  and  third-grade  teachers? 
10.   What  provision  is  made  for  voice  training? 

MAKE-UP  OF  THE   BOOK 

1.  Is  the  book  attractive? 

2.  Will  it  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of  daily  use? 

3.  Are  the  illustrations  artistic,  suggestive,  and  of  educative 
worth? 

4.  Are  they  well  arranged  ? 

5.  Are  the  type  and  page  arrangement  well  adapted  to  the 
particular  grade  for  which  the  book  is  intended? 


no  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

6.  Is  the  book  convenient  as  to  size,  weight,  and  flexibiUty  of 
binding  ? 

Standards  in  Spelling  and  Languiage.  In  PhoeniomllCy 
Pa.,  under  the  direction  of  Superintendent  Isaac  Dough- 
ton,  a  successful  method  of  selecting  textbooks  has  been  em- 
ployed. The  superintendent  examined  a  large  number  of 
spellers  and  then  asked  the  teachers  who  taught  spelling  from 
the  third  grade  up  to  examine  six  of  the  books  that  seemed  to 
him  the  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils.  These  books 
were  to  be  arranged  in  the  order  of  choice  as  first,  second,  etc. 
The  books  were  then  scored  by  the  following  plan : 

For  factors  of  scoring  the  order  was  inverted;  that  is,  every 
choice  was  scored  six  points,  every  second  choice,  five,  and  so  on 
to  the  sixth  choice,  which  was  scored  one  point.  In  spite  of  the 
instruction  given  to  rate  every  book,  some  teachers  gave  only  the 
first,  second,  and  third  choice,  or  rated  only  four  books.  In  such 
cases  the  remaining  possible  scores  were  totaled  and  distributed 
equally  among  the  books  not  reported.  On  account  of  the  cen- 
tralization of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  score  was  tabu- 
lated separately  for  the  first  six  grades,  and  the  average  rank 
of  the  six  texts  was  determined.  Then  to  make  the  final  choice, 
this  average  rating  was  scored  in  the  same  way  and  given  a 
scoring  power  of  two,  the  rating  of  the  seventh-  and  eighth-grade 
teacher  was  given  a  scoring  power  of  one  and  the  superintend- 
ent's own  rating  was  given  a  scoring  power  of  two.  On  the  basis 
of  this  final  score  the  final  rating  was  determined  and  the  choice 
made. 

Table  IV  indicates  the  results  of  the  teachers*  judgments 
in  some  detail. 

The  divergence  of  opinion  is  accounted  for  largely  by  the 
fact  that  each  teacher  was  concerned  only  with  the  books  of 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks         iii 

I.  Teachers'  Judgments  of  Speluno  Texts 
TABLE  IV 


Choice 

Book  A 

BookB 

BookC 

Book  D     Book  E 

BookF 

M 

1 

n 

1 

II 

1 

11 

1 

11 

1 

M 

1 

First  

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Extra 

Combined    Score    of 
Teachers,     Grades 

ni-vi    .... 

5 
4 

4 

lO 

4 
35 

21-5 

1 
s 

3 

I 

I 

6 

25 
12 

3 

35 
49-5 

I 

2 

2 

4 

I 

6 

lO 

8 

12 
2 

38.5 

6 

I 
2 
2 

36 
5 
8 
6 

55 

3 
2 

5 

I 

12 
6 

5 
3-5 

26.S 

3 

I 

2 

3 

I 
I 

18 

5 

6 
6 

X 

35 
39-5 

The  left  side  of  each  double  column  indicates  the  number  of  teachers  who 
selected  the  particular  book  for  the  particular  choice ;  the  right  side  indicates 
the  score,  found  by  multiplying  this  number  by  the  "factor."  "Rie  factors 
were  as  follows :  First  choice,  6 ;  second,  5 ;  third,  4 ;  fourth,  3 ;  fifth,  2 ;  and 
sixth,  I. 

her  grade,  while  the  superintendent  was  interested  in  the  books 
of  all  the  grades.  The  other  tables  give  the  results  in  a  more 
summarized  form. 


II.  Combined  Tabttlation  of  Scores 
TABLE  V 


Book 
A 

Book 
B 

Book 

c 

Book 
D 

Book 
E 

Average  Rank  of  Teachers,  Grades 

III-VI 

Rank,  Grades  Vll-Vm      .     .     . 
Rank,  Supt 

6 
6 
6 

2 
5 
3 

3 
4 
S 

I 
3 

X 

5 
2 

4 

4 
2 

I 

112  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 


III.  Final  Scores:  Textbooks 
TABLE  VI 


Twice  Average  Score,  Grades  III 

to  VI 

Score,  Grades  VII  to  VIII  .    .     . 

Twice  Supt.  Score 

Total  Score       

Final  Rank 


Book 

Book 

Book 

Book 

Book 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

2 

lO 

8 

12 

4 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

2 

8 

4 

12 

6 

5 

20 

IS 

28 

IS 

6 

3 

4 

w 

S 

Book 
F 


6 
6 

lO 

22 

2 


A  similar  procedure  was  followed  in  selecting  textbooks  in 
language.    Textbook  "  D  ''  was  finally  chosen. 

Superintendent  Dough  ton  finds  that  this  method  has  several 
advantages,  especially  in  smaller  districts.  In  the  first  place 
every  teacher's  vote  affects  the  result.  (2)  The  plan  is  flexi- 
ble since  the  scoring  ability  of  each  group  of  teachers  and  of 
the  superintendent  may  be  made  anything  one  pleases  as  the 
size  of  the  groups  and  the  distribution  of  responsibility  may 
suggest.  (3)  The  final  choice  is  a  composite  in  which  every 
person  concerned  has  had  opportunity  to  influence  the  results. 
The  superintendent  is  able  to  check  up  his  own  judgment  and 
that  of  his  teachers  in  a  fairly  measurable  manner. 

The  Cincinnati  committee  devised  the  following  standards 
in  spelling  and  language. 

Spelling.  I.  The  words  listed  should  be  those  which  in- 
vestigations have  shown  pupils  will  need  most  in  their  written  work 
at  school  and  after  they  leave  school. 

2.  Provision  should  be  made  for  frequent  review  of  words 
commonly  misspelled. 

3.  Words  should  be  listed  so  as  to  economize  effort  in  teaching, 
i,e,  grouped  as  to  roots,  prefixes,  suffixes,  etc. 


The  Selecting  and  Jtulging  of  Textbooks         113 

4.  Suggestions  to  teachers  should  offer  means  of  presenting 
words  with  a  strong  initial  appeal,  for  analyzing  difficulties,  for 
discovering  types  of  errors  and  for  following  up  spelling  difficul- 
ties in  all  written  work. 

5.  Diacritical  marks  should  be  used  sufficiently  to  make  children 
self -helpful  in  consulting  the  dictionary. 

6.  Dictation  exercises  should  receive  due  attention. 
Language,     i.   Extent  to  which  the  text  suggests  varied  motives 

and  touches  a  variety  of  children's  interests  as  a  basis  for  oral 
and  written  language. 

2.  Extent  to  which  oral  work  is  made  preparatory  to  written 
work. 

3.  Extent  to  which  original  story  work,  letter  writing,  and  con- 
versations prevail  in  the  types  of  work  presented. 

4.  Extent  to  which  the  books  develop  appreciation  of  good 
literature,  enrich  vocabulary,  and  improve  diction. 

5.  Extent  to  which  the  content  arouses  and  sustains  pupils* 
interest. 

6.  Extent  to  which  the  plan  of  the  books  develops  correct  use 
of  idioms  through  eye,  ear,  and  voice,  forming  correct  habits  from 
the  beginning. 

7.  Extent  to  which  grammatical  forms  are  made  to  grow  out 
of  immediate  needs  and  are  applied  to  new  work. 

8.  Extent  to  which  formal  granmiar  is  reduced  to  the  low- 
est terms  compatible  with  an  explanation  of  everyday  Eng- 
lish.i 

Suggestive  Standards  for  History  Texts.  Wayland  *  out- 
lines a  brief  scheme  for  judging  history  texts.  Its  points  are 
well  selected  and  if  observed  should  result  in  a  discriminative 
choice  of  textbooks  in  this  subject. 

*  Journal  of  School  Administration  and  Supervision.    April,  1918. 
*How  to  Teach  American  History.    Macmillan,  1914. 

I 


114  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEWING  A  TEXTBOOK  IN  HISTORY 

1.  Name  of  author ;  exact  title ;  name  of  publisher ;  place  and 
date  of  publication. 

2.  Your  acquaintance  with  the  book.  Have  you  used  the  book 
as  a  student  or  as  a  teacher,  or  as  both ;  or  have  you  only  given  it 
a  hasty  reading? 

3.  The  historical  veracity  of  the  book.  —  Is  it  accurate  and  fair  ? 

4.  Proportion  of  parts.  —  Are  the  topics  well  selected,  and  is 
the  emphasis  well  placed? 

5.  The  Uterary  style.  —  Is  it  clear  and  interesting? 

6.  Maps  and  illustrations. 

7.  Teaching  helps,  bibliographies,  index. 

8.  General  appearance  and  make-up. 

9.  Adaptability.  —  Does  it  suit  your  grade  or  your  class? 

To  these  qualifications  should  be  added :  clear  ideas,  simple 
style,  subject-matter  so  apportioned  that  the  emphasis  will  be 
laid  on  recent  history  (for  texts  in  modern  and  in  American 
history),  good  character  sketches,  a  good  treatment  of  economic 
and  social  events,  and  a  list  of  references  that  is  definite  and 
fairly  accessible  to  the  pupil. 

Henry  Bourne  ^  mentions  several  characteristics  of  a  good 
textbook  that  emphasize  some  of  the  foregoing  points.  In 
the  first  place  it  should  be  written  by  a  competent  scholar. 
(2)  It  must  rest  upon  a  close  acquaintance  with  the  problem 
of  instruction.  (3)  It  should  not  be  overloaded  with  many 
details,  although  it  should  be  a  book  of  facts,  not  of  ready- 
made  judgments  which  will  prevent  the  pupil  from  con- 
sulting other  books.  (4)  Its  pages  should  not  be  sprinkled 
with  dates.  A  distinction  should  be  made  between  those 
which  are  inserted  for  the  sake  of  precision  and  others  which 
1  The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics.    Longmans,  1903 ;  pp.  157-161. 


The  Selecting  and  Jtidging  of  Textbooks         115 

are  to  be  committed  to  memory.  (5)  There  must  be  abun- 
dant maps.  (6)  Instructive  illustrations.  The  artist's  draw- 
ing, if  carefully  done,  has  a  certain  educational  value.  If  a 
portrait  of  an  individual  is  used,  that  which  represents  him 
at  the  time  when  his  career  is  most  interesting  to  history 
should  be  chosen.  Many  of  the  pictures  of  historical  char- 
acters were  taken  at  an  advanced  age  whereas  they  were  young 
when  engaged  in  historical  events.  (7)  A  few  genealogical 
tables. 

Illustrations  of  history  texts  will  be  found  in  subsequent 
chapters. 

Textbooks  in  Foreign  Language.  The  current  antagonism 
toward  the  dominant  role  played  by  Latin  in  the  high  schools 
and  colleges  of  our  country  is  not  altogether  the  traditional 
opposition  of  the  practical  toward  the  cultural  in  education. 
There  are  many  opponents  of  Latin,  as  it  is  frequently  taught, 
who  sincerely  believe  that  this  subject  has  educational  value 
and  a  cultural  purpose  sufficiently  large  to  justify  almost 
any  student  in  devoting  at  least  two  years  to  its  study.  The 
main  criticism,  aside  from  that  directed  against  the  amount 
of  time  demanded  for  Latin  by  its  teachers,  concerns  the 
technic  of  teaching  it.  And  this  objection  includes  a  criti- 
cism of  a  certain  type  of  Latin  texts.  A  glance  through  two 
of  these  books,  selected  quite  at  random,  will  indicate  their 
laudable  and  less  praiseworthy  features. 

The  first  is  Caesar's  Gallic  War,  Books  I-IV}  Little  need 
be  said  about  the  mechanical  aspect  of  the  book.  The  print- 
ing is  clear,  neat,  and  adequately  differentiated  to  set  forth 
special  points  for  study.  The  volimie  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  first  dealing  with  Books  I  and  II,  which  are  to  be  studied 
»  Erast  Ricss  and  .\rthur  L.  James.    American  Book  Co.,  191 4. 


ii6  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

in  detail.  The  second  part  includes  Books  III  and  IV,  ar- 
ranged for  sight  reading.  At  the  end  of  the  first  part  are 
elaborate  notes,  a  grammatical  summary  dealing  especially 
with  points  occurring  in  the  text,  a  word  list,  and  exercises 
in  prose  composition.  Part  Two  is  also  supplied  with  notes, 
but  these  are  given  at  the  bottom  of  each  page  so  that  the 
pupil,  while  reading  at  sight,  may  have  ready  reference  to 
the  helpful  suggestions  in  these  notes.  At  the  close  of  the 
whole  text  are  a  brief  discussion  of  word  formation,  an  index 
of  proper  names,  and  the  usual  vocabularies.  At  convenient 
intervals  and  as  illustrations  of  descriptions  of  battle  for- 
mation are  colored  diagrams  and  maps,  artistic  in  appearance 
and  effective  for  a  correct  visualizing  of  the  scenes  described 
in  the  contents. 

The  Introduction  has  a  valuable  essay  on  Caesar  and  the 
Roman  army,  with  helpful  illustrations. 

One  looks  in  vain,  however,  for  any  statement  of  the 
educational  value  of  the  book.  The  pupil  is  not  told  why  he 
is  invited  to  labor  over  the  war  correspondence  of  Caesar. 
The  book  suppUes  in  brief  sentence  form  a  descriptive  head- 
ing in  EngHsh  of  the  several  sections,  but  nowhere  do  the 
authors  give  a  summary  in  outline  form  of  the  contents. 
The  pupil  will  translate  haltingly  and  in  wretched  English, 
and  at  the  close  will  have  probably  only  a  very  confused 
understanding  of  what  all  this  strange  jumble  of  words  really 
means.  One  may  well  question  the  genuine  educational 
value  of  such  procedure.  So  far  as  the  author  is  aware  there 
is  no  text  in  Caesar  that  provides  at  the  beginning  of  each 
book  a  well-written  summary  of  the  contents.  Such  a  trans- 
lation (free  and  beautiful)  would  give  the  pupil  a  background 
for  his  own  translation.     A  summary  of  this  sort  would  not 


The  Selecting  and  Jiidging  of  Textbooks         117 

unduly  facilitate  translation,  for  word  and  sentence  structure 
still  require  adequate  rendering  into  English.  After  the 
pupil  has  been  painstakingly  accurate,  and  even  while  he  is 
analyzing  the  various  paragraphs,  he  should  be  conscious  of  a 
general  meaning  that  will  sustain  interest  and  properly  facili- 
tate the  understanding  of  what  he  reads.  The  Summary 
would  provide  this  needful  background. 

Excellent  as  are  the  maps  it  would  add  to  their  interest 
for  the  pupil  if  in  colored  outline  Gallic  territory  as  it  is 
to-day,  with  English  equivalents,  appeared  on  each  map. 
Some  of  this  material  is  given  in  the  notes. 

The  text  would  have  additional  value  if  at  the  close  of  each 
book  the  authors  gave  a  Hst  of  suggestions  for  study,  includ- 
ing review  questions  that  would  ch'nch  the  meaning  of  the 
various  passages,  make  clearer  the  images  of  the  scenes 
described,  and  more  easily  recall  the  several  points  of  interest 
emphasized  by  Caesar.  Such  directions  for  study  would 
really  illumine  the  course  and  make  its  progress  cultural  and 
also  practical  in  the  best  sense  of  this  word. 

In  Virgil^s  Mneid  ^  there  is  a  quite  different  approach. 
The  authors'  preface  quickly  wins  interest  for  the.  book  and 
seldom  does  one  find  an  Introduction  so  satisfying  as  the  one 
in  this  text.  After  several  pages  devoted  to  an  account  of 
Virgil's  life  and  works,  there  is  a  carefully  written  essay  on 
ihe  literary  value  of  the  Mneid,  an  analysis  of  each  of  the 
six  books,  and  a  study  of  the  character  and  personality  of 
iEneas.  Extracts  from  syntax,  rhetoric,  and  prosody  are 
also  given.  The  authors  show  a  sweet  reasonableness  in  giv- 
ing a  translation  of  the  first  thirty- three  lines.  This  is  done 
because  these  verses  are  generally  considered  the  most  dif- 

^  H.  R.  Fairclough  and  Selden  Brown.    Benjaniin  H.  Sanborn  &  Co.,  ig^A- 


ii8  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtidge  It 

ficult  for  the  pupil  to  translate.  Tennyson's  tribute  to  Virgil 
closes  the  Introduction. 

If  the  teacher  gives  faithful  attention  to  this  preliminary 
material  in  one  or  two  assignments  through  the  medium  of 
a  Lesson  in  Appreciation,  the  pupil  will  doubtless  approach  the 
more  technical  work  of  the  course  with  considerable  enthu- 
siasm. His  studying,  moreover,  will  be  definite,  for  the  authors 
give  notes  and  questions  at  the  close  of  each  book,  suggestions 
that  form  excellent  means  of  reviewing  and  enriching  the 
several  units  of  the  course. 

An  outline  of  each  book  with  the  place  occupied  by  each 
character,  diagrams  of  the  plot,  and  references  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  various  books  on  English  literature  would  indicate 
how  the  course  might  be  correlated  with  English  literature 
and  history. 

Various  Standards  Summarized.  A  Suggestive  Summary 
of  qualities  of  good  textbooks  in  a  variety  of  subjects  is  made 
by  T.  Raymont:^ 

A  good  teacher  of  younger  scholars  will  usually  select  that  text- 
book of  arithmetic  or  algebra  which  consists  simply  of  a  copious, 
varied,  and  systematic  series  of  exercises.  He  will  prefer  that  all 
explanatory  and  demonstrative  matter  should  form  the  subject  of 
oral  lessons,  he  will  help  his  pupils  to  make  their  own  summaries  of 
facts  and  principles,  and  he  will  resent  any  division  into  "lessons" 
as  an  unwarrantable  intrusion  upon  the  individual  teacher's  prov- 
ince. The  exercises  should  be  sufficient  not  only  for  a  first 
course,  but  also  for  subsequent  revision;  the  book  will  not  be 
worked  straight  through,  as  if  it  were  a  story  book,  but  the  teacher 
will  pick  out  such  samples  as  will  best  serve  his  purpose  at  the  time. 
In  short,  the  book  will  be  the  teacher's  servant,  not  his  master. 

1  Principles  of  Education.    Longmans,  Green  and  Co.,  1913,  pp.  272,  273. 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks  119 

The  choice  of  a  textbook  in  geometry  will,  of  course,  depend,  in 
the  first  instance,  upon  the  teacher's  special  views  as  to  the  content 
and  sequence  of  the  course ;  but  he  will  in  any  case  require  that  the 
figiu-es  be  bold  and  well-drawn,  that  the  steps  of  the  proof  be  clearly 
arranged,  and  that  due  limits  be  placed  upon  abbreviations  of 
geometrical  language.  Here  again  he  will  be  satisfied  with  the 
usual  systematic  arrangement.  Though  he  will  not  require  all 
the  axioms  and  definitions  to  be  swallowed  at  the  outset,  he  will 
not  object  to  their  being  neatly  brought  together,  to  be  referred  to 
as  occasion  arises. 

The  one  indispensable  textbook  of  geography  is,  for  beginners, 
a  collection  of  pictures,  and  for  older  pupils,  a  collection  of  diagrams 
and  maps,  which  should  not  be  crowded  with  unnecessary  names, 
and  should  be  printed  with  merciful  regard  to  the  scholar's  eye- 
sight. .  .  .  Similarly  the  best  supplement  to  a  course  of  lessons 
in  history  is  a  "  skeleton  outline  "  of  the  chief  events,  chronologically 
arranged,  and  so  forming  a  temporal  scheme  which  shall  aid  the 
memory  and  be  on  hand  for  reference.  For  the  rest,  the  teacher 
of  geography  and  history  will  prefer  to  rely  on  his  own  powers  of 
description  and  narration,  and  on  the  contents  of  the  school 
library. 

In  the  teaching  of  natural  science,  books  will  play  a  still  less 
important  part.  A  brief  summary  of  facts  and  principles  such  as 
might  be  given  in  the  form  of  notes,  is  the  utmost  that  is  needed ; 
unless  the  subject  demands  the  solution  of  numerical  problems, 
in  which  case  a  collection  of  these  may  be  useful.  .  .  . 

A  school  grammar  should  make  the  essentials  absolutely  clear, 
and  relegate  all  exceptional  formations  and  constructions  to  appen- 
dices and  footnotes.  The  use  of  a  vocabulary  is  a  convenient 
stepping  stone  to  that  of  a  dictionary. 

Summary.  The  judging  of  textbooks  is  so  often  a  hap- 
hazard and  ill-defined  process  that  all  concerned  need  to  co- 
operate in  constructing  standards  that  will  greatly  aid  the 


I20  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

judge  in  this  important  matter.  Generally  speaking,  a  text- 
book should  be  well  and  clearly  printed,  i.e.  printed  in  ac- 
cord with  the  needs  of  the  stage  of  development,  physically 
and  mentally,  of  school  children.  It  should  be  mechanically 
attractive  and  effective  both  in  illustrations,  binding,  and 
general  arrangement  of  the  contents.  The  material  should  be 
graded,  new  words  carefully  defined  on  the  page  where  they 
occur,  statements  made  accurately,  and  the  literary  style 
simple  and  direct  so  that  the  pupils  can  easily  understand 
them.  Rules  and  exceptions  should  be  printed  in  different 
type. 

QUESTIONS    AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  How  are  textbooks  and  supplementary  books  adopted  in 
your  school  system? 

2.  What  procedure  is  followed  by  individuals  assigned  the  criti- 
cal examination  of  proposed  texts  in  your  school?  Does  the 
teacher  have  any  real  responsibility  in  the  selection  of  texts? 

3.  How  would  you  improve  upon  the  criteria  or  standards  for 
judging  textbooks,  as  illustrated  in  this  chapter?  What  method 
might  be  used  in  constructing  standards  more  objective  than  those 
cited  in  this  chapter? 

4.  To  what  extent  are  the  criteria  used  in  your  school  merely 
conventional,  and  to  what  extent  are  they  determined  by  a  careful 
study  of  the  textbook  itself,  its  organization  of  subject-matter, 
its  mechanical  arrangement,  etc.  ? 

5.  How  do  the  texts  that  you  now  use  conform  to  the  stand- 
ards stated  in  this  chapter  ? 

6.  How  often  are  textbooks  changed  in  your  school  system? 
Is  this  often  enough?  What  should  determine  the  frequency  of 
change  in  textbooks? 


The  Selecting  and  Judging  of  Textbooks         121 


REFERENCES 

CocKERELL,  T.  D.  A.  "  Tcxtbooks  and  Reviewing."  Science.  Vol.  34 : 
561,  2,  Oct.  27,  1911. 

Dearborn,  W.  F.  "  The  Psychology  of  Reading."  Archives  of  Philoso- 
phy, Psychology  and  Science,  No.  4,  1906. 

DocKERY,  F.  C.  "Span  of  Vision  in  Reading  and  the  Legibility  of 
Letters."    Journal  of  Educational  Psychology.     Vol.  i :   123-31. 

FiTZPATRiCK,  F.  A.  "  Bookman  and  the  Textbook  Problem."  N.  E.  A. 
Proceedings,  191 2.     Pp.  449-55- 

"  Bookman  and  His  Relation  to  the  Textbook  Problem."    Educa- 
tional Review.     Vol.43:   282-91;   March,  1912. 

HuEY,  E.  B.  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading.  Macmillan; 
1908. 

Jessup  and  Coffman.  Ttie  Supervision  o]  Arithmetic.  Macmillan; 
1916;    Ch.  IX. 

"  Quality  and  Cost  of  Textbooks."    Journal  of  Education.     Vol.  81 : 
681-3;  June  24,  191 5. 

Karapetoff,  V.  **  Are  Teachers  Entitled  to  Complimentary  Desk  Cop- 
ies of  Technical  Books?"  Science.  Vol.  35:  452-4;  March  22, 
1912. 

MiDDLETON,  G.  "  Textbook  Game  and  Its  Quarry."  Bookman.  Vol. 
33:  141-7;  April,  1911. 

Monroe,  Paul.    Encyclopedia  of  Education.   Vol.  V.  "Textbooks." 

Sandford,  E.  C.  "  Relative  Legibility  of  the  Small  Letters."  American 
Journal  of  Psychology.     Vol.  1 :  402-35. 

"  Schoolbooks  That  Ruin  the  Eyesight."  Literary  Digest.  Vol.  46 : 
394;  Feb.  22,  1913. 

"Square   Deal."     Journal    of    Education.     Vol.   82:    660;    Dec.   30, 

1915- 
Stuart,  D.  C.    "  One  Way  of  Making  Textbooks."     Nation.    Vol.  90 : 

428,  9;  April  28,  1910. 
Thwing,  C.  F.    "Improvement  of  the  Textbook."    Nation.    Vol.90: 

424,  5 ;  April  28,  1910. 
WooDWORTH,  R.  S.    "  Vision  and  Localization  During  Eye-movements." 

Psychological  Bulletin.    Vol.  3,  No.  2. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  TEXTBOOK  AS  A  TOOL 

The  Importance  of  Knowing  One's  Tools.  It  seems  to 
have  been  tacitly  assumed  for  many  centuries  that  in  the 
studying  of  abstract  subjects  the  learner  possessed  as  a  gift 
of  nature  the  ability  to  master  the  difficulties  involved  in  the 
courses  assigned  or  elected  by  him.  The  mind  itself  was 
regarded  as  a  tool  and  the  individual  somehow  knew  by  the 
gift  of  the  gods  just  how  this  tool  should  be  sharpened  and 
handled.  This  attitude  toward  the  educative  process  resulted 
in  the  development  of  memory  as  par  excellence  the  method 
of  study,  and  many  volumes  throughout  the  centuries  have 
been  written  on  memory  and  devices  of  memorizing.  So- 
called  memory  schools  have  arisen,  and  complicated  schemes 
of  mnemonics  have  been  contrived.  More  recently,  however, 
educators  have  found  it  necessary  to  consider  other  methods 
of  study  and  to  give  them  greater  significance  in  the  classroom. 
Memorizing  is  important  and  even  fundamental  in  all  educa- 
tion, for  unless  we  can  retain  and  recall  what  has  been  learned 
education  is  a  misnomer.  But  the  educative  process  depends 
on  other  factors  as  well,  and  one  of  these  is  the  ability  to  use 
the  means  universally  selected  for  imparting  knowledge  and 
developing  powers  of  understanding  and  thinking. 

What  the  hammer,  saw,  chisel,  needle,  scissors,  etc.,  are  to 
manual  training  and  household  arts,  the  textbook  is  to  those 
courses  where  knowledge  and  training  depend  upon  recorded 

123 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  123 

information,  either  entirely  or  in  part.  If  it  is  vital  to  train 
pupils  in  the  handling  of  tools  in  laboratory  courses,  it  is 
equally  essential  that  similar  training  be  afforded  them  in 
the  use  of  the  textbook.  For  the  textbook  is  a  tool  by  means 
of  which  knowledge  is  received  and  understanding  developed. 
A  properly  constructed  textbook  is  practically  indispensable 
in  formal  education.  But  if  it  is  not  wisely  used,  it  results  in 
waste  of  time  and  effort,  not  to  mention  waste  of  money. 

Locke  emphasizes  these  and  other  points  in  his  Conduct  of 
the  Understanding. 

There  is  nothing  almost  has  done  more  harm  to  men  dedi- 
cated to  letters  than  giving  the  names  of  study  to  reading,  and 
making  a  man  of  great  reading  to  be  the  same  with  a  man  of 
great  knowledge,  or  at  least  to  be  the  title  of  honor.  .  .  . 
Books  and  reading  are  looked  upon  to  be  the  great  helps  of  the 
understanding  and  instruments  of  knowledge,  as  it  must  be  allowed 
that  they  are;  yet  I  beg  leave  to  question  whether  these  do  not 
prove  an  hindrance  to  many  and  keep  several  bookish  men  from 
attaining  to  solid  and  true  knowledge.  This  I  think  I  may  be 
permitted  to  say,  that  there  is  no  part  wherein  the  understanding 
needs  more  careful  and  wary  conduct  than  in  the  use  of  books; 
without  which  they  will  prove  rather  innocent  amusements  than 
profitable  employments  of  our  time,  and  bring  but  small  additions 
to  our  knowledge. 

And  in  the  same  connection : 

Till  we  ourselves  see  it  with  our  own  eyes  and  perceive  it  by 
our  own  understandings,  we  are  as  much  in  the  dark  and  as  void 
of  knowledge  as  before,  let  us  believe  any  learned  author  as 
much  as  we  will. 

Aids  to  Study  in  Textbooks.  The  best  textbooks  are  so 
arranged  that  under  skillful  direction  the  pupil  is  able  to  glean 


124  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jiidge  It 

at  least  elementary  acquaintanceship  with  the  subject.  More 
recent  texts  contain  very  definite  aids  to  study.  These  helps 
are  clearly  stated,  and  the  authors  have  not  failed  to  label 
their  directions  as  "  helps  to  study.''  The  pupil  notes  that 
the  author  has  had  him  in  mind  and  has  not  been  concerned 
chiefly  or  entirely  in  supplying  information  about  the  subject. 
In  using  the  textbook  as  a  tool  three  lines  of  direction  are 
available.    The  first  of  these  consists  of : 


I.     SUGGESTIONS   BY  THE   AUTHOR 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  authors  of  modern  text- 
books include  directions  of  study  which  will  facilitate  the 
pupil's  grasp  of  the  various  assignments.  Some  of  these  di- 
rections refer  to  methods  of  memorizing,  physical  conditions 
of  study,  means  of  providing  concentration,  etc.  But  more 
definite  than  these  are  the  other  suggestions  for  study. 

The  Syllabus.  Not  infrequently  the  author  supplies  his 
reader  with  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  chapter  arranged 
in  a  series  of  short  sentences  or  paragraphs  that  contain  the 
gist  of  the  main  points.  Stated  in  this  tabloid  form  the 
reader  has  a  birdseye  view  of  the  chapter  and  can  more  readily 
appreciate  the  relationship  between  the  several  subdivisions 
appearing  in  the  chapter.  Two  kinds  of  arrangement  of  the 
syllabus  are  in  vogue. 

The  syllabus  preceding  the  chapter  and  forming  an  intro- 
duction to  its  contents  is  especially  valuable  in  providing  the 
pupil  with  a  background.  If  he  reads  through  this  syllabus 
under  the  teacher's  direction,  he  becomes  acquainted  with 
terms  and  ideas  whose  restatement  and  elaboration  are  some- 
what familiar  and   therefore  more  easily  understood.     The 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  125 

pupil  has  been  prepared  for  the  new  material.  He  has  al- 
ready seen  the  new  material  in  its  large  associations  and 
meaning.  In  the  more  detailed  study  that  follows,  subdi- 
visions and  special  points  of  emphasis  will  have  appeal  be- 
cause they  belong  to  a  whole  that  he  has  already  seen.  To 
use  an  illustration  from  aviation,  he  has  flown  over  the  new 
territory  and  has  seen  its  boundaries  and  inner  organization. 
Without  this  overhead  view  his  progress  through  the  chapter 
must  indeed  appear  haphazard  and  puzzling. 

Every  teacher  knows  how  essential  it  is  in  presenting  the 
pupil  to  strange  material  that  some  lines  of  connection  with 
familiar  material  be  run  in  order  to  unify  experience  and 
lay  foundations  for  ready  comprehension.  None  of  us  can 
grasp  wholly  strange  principles  and  facts.  If,  however,  we 
discover  in  the  new  something  that  reminds  us  of  the  old, 
perception  and  understanding  become  possible.  The  skill- 
ful teacher  will  link  the  new  with  experience  that  is  per- 
sonally interesting  to  each  pupil,  or  with  experience  that  has 
become  his  by  means  of  thorough  comprehension.  The  pre- 
liminary syllabus,  therefore,  must  be  explained  in  its  relation- 
ship to  what  the  child  already  knows,  otherwise  it  is  of  but 
little  value. 

Illustrations  of  the  preliminary  syllabus.  Various  forms  of 
the  syllabus  preceding  the  chapter  can  be  found  in  the  more 
recent  textbooks.  A  good  example  of  the  outline  type  occurs 
in  Towne's  Social  Problems}  The  chapter  on  "Conservation 
of  Human  Life"  is  outlined  as  follows: 

I.   Safety 

1.  General  significance 

2.  National  organization  for  safety 

^  Macmillan,  1916. 


126  Textbook^  How  to  Use  It  and  Jiidge  It 

3.  First-aid  work 

4.  Railroad  organizations  for  safety 

5.  Safety  in  mines 

6.  Safety  in  factories 

7.  Work  of  corporations  toward  safety 

8.  State  control 

9.  New  standards  for  coroner's  office 
n.  Industrial  diseases 

1.  Definition 

2.  Prevalence 

3.  Lines  of  action  necessary 

a.  Investigation 

b.  Legislation 

c.  Education  of  the  public 

4.  Results  of  prevention 

5.  Conclusions 
m.  Infant  mortality 

1.  Extent 

2.  Rate  compared  with  other  countries 

3.  Causes 

4.  Combative  measures 
$.   Public  sentiment 

6.  National  Association 

7.  Signs  of  progress 

8.  Children's  bureau 
IV.  Health  and  Sanitation 

1.  Diseases  classified 

2.  Length  of  life 

3.  Dijfferent  diseases 

a.  Causes 

b.  Methods  of  combating  each 

4.  Needs  of  the  United  States 

a.  Scientific  preventive  medicine 

b.  Health  boards  and  experts 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  127 

c.  Cooperation  of  the  people 

d.  Eugenics 

e.  Pure  food 
V.  Conclusion 

In  A  Students  History  of  Education  by  Graves  *  the  pre- 
liminary syllabus  is  a  well-condensed  summary  of  the  chapter. 
For  example,  the  chapter  on  **The  Scientific  Movement  and 
the  Curriculum"  is  introduced  by  four  quintessential  para- 
graphs : 

OUTLINE 

During  the  past  two  centuries  a  great  growth  has  taken  place  in 
the  natural  sciences.  For  a  long  time  this  development  affected 
the  practical  life  very  little,  but  during  the  nineteenth  century 
the  application  of  science  to  industrial  problems  has  resulted  in  a 
host  of  inventions. 

Because  of  the  importance  of  the  sciences  to  life,  Spencer  and 
others  have  urged  the  inclusion  of  them  in  the  curricula  of  schools 
and  colleges.  While  the  content  of  the  sciences  has  furnished  the 
chief  argument  for  this,  many  scientists  have  urged  their  value  as 
formal  discipline. 

Instruction  in  the  sciences  has  gradually  been  included  in  the 
higher  and  secondary,  as  well  as  in  the  elementary  institutions 
of  Germany,  France,  England,  and  the  United  States. 

This  marked  scientific  movement  is  allied  with  the  psychological 
tendency  in  its  improvement  of  method,  and  with  the  sociological 
in  its  emphasis  upon  human  welfare. 

A  similar  arrangement  is  adopted  in  The  History  of  Modern 
Elementary  Education  by  S.  C.  Parker.^  The  syllabus  is 
called  "  Main  Points  of  the  Chapter  "  and  in  numerical  order 
gives  the  essentials  of  the  chapter. 

^  MacmUlan,  1916.  *  Ginn  and  Co.,  xgia. 


128  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

It  is  not  always  possible  or  necessary  to  provide  intro- 
ductory outlines  of  the  contents  of  a  chapter,  but  wherever 
possible  such  outlines  are  a  valuable  aid  to  the  pupil,  espe- 
cially when  the  teacher  discusses  the  syllabus  with  the  class, 
the  pupils  having  their  books  open. 

A  happy  and  stimulating  introduction,  slightly  different 
from  the  forms  considered,  but  maintaining  the  necessary 
elements  of  a  syllabus,  is  found  in  Long's  English  and  Ameri- 
can Literature}  Each  chapter  is  headed  with  an  apt  poetical 
quotation,  an  historical  outline,  and  a  paragraph  on  typical 
writers  or  a  general  critical  estimate  of  the  men  and  works 
about  to  be  studied.  Separated  from  the  main  body  of  the 
chapter  by  smaller  type  and  large  leading,  the  introductory 
material  is  attractive  in  appearance  as  well  as  helpful  in  its 
subject-matter. 

More  usual  is  the  summary  or  syllabus  that  follows  the 
chapter.  If  the  kind  just  considered  provides  a  background, 
the  more  usual  arrangement  supplies  a  means  of  review  and 
recall,  both  of  which  are  indispensable  in  any  field  of  study. 
The  author  of  a  text  regards  certain  statements  in  the  chapter 
as  especially  important,  and  by  means  of  a  syllabus  lists  those 
points  for  the  reader's  benefit.  Some  authors  use  a  brief  and 
general  summary,  but  for  the  beginning  pupil  itemized  resumes 
are  preferable. 

The  question  may  arise  whether  both  of  these  kinds  of 
syllabi  might  be  used  in  a  chapter.  The  preliminary  syllabus 
would  perhaps  be  more  detailed  than  the  other  and  aim  chiefly 
to  give  the  organization  of  the  material.  The  review  syllabus 
would  not  deal  with  the  structure  of  the  contents  but  rather 
with  such  important  points  as  the  author  deemed  pertinent 
1  Giiui  and  Co.,  191 7. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  129 

for  the  understanding  of  the  entire  subject  treated  in  the 
text.  The  employment  of  both  kinds  is,  therefore,  important. 
Illustrations  of  the  summary  that  follows  the  chapter.  A 
unique  and  distinctly  valuable  form  of  this  type  of  summary 
is  employed  in  Human  Behavior  by  Colvin  and  Bagley.* 
For  example,  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  on  "  How  Instinctive 
Behavior  May  Be  Changed,"  the  authors  summarize  the  dis- 
cussion by  giving  the  following  **  Definitions  and  Explanations 
of  Terms  Used  "  : 

Modification  of  instincts.  —  Changing  the  character  of  an 
instinctive  activity  by  (i)  attaching  another  feeling  and  its  appro- 
priate response  to  an  object  that  naturally  arouses  an  undesirable 
instinct;  (2)  attaching  another  response  to  an  object  and  the 
feeling  that  it  naturally  arouses ;  (3)  or  detaching  a  feeling  from 
its  natural  object  and  response,  and  attaching  it  to  other  objects 
and  responses. 

Sublimation  of  instinct.  —  Modification  of  the  third  type  de- 
scribed above. 

Doctrine  of  natural  punishments.  —  The  theory  that  the  unguided 
experience  of  the  child  will  lead  to  the  essential  modification  of 
instinctive  tendencies. 

Ideal.  —  An  idea  surcharged  with  feeling,  and  thus  made  an 
effective  end  or  goal  of  conduct. 

By  this  means  review  and  recall  are  promoted  more  readily 
than  if  the  pupil  were  left  to  do  his  own  summarizing,  a  task 
especially  difficult  in  a  subject  like  psychology. 

Breslich  uses  a  similar  study  device  in  his  three  volumes  on 
Mathematics,  already  referred  to.  A  brief  citation  taken 
from  Third  Year  Mathematics  is  typical. 

*  MacmiUan,  1915. 


130  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtulge  It 

SUMMARY 

355.  The  chapter  has  taught  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms : 
polyhedral  angle,  triedral  angle,  polar  spherical  triangles. 

356.  The  following  theorems  have  been  studied : 

(Here  follow  twenty  of  the  theorems.) 

357.  The  following  constructions  were  taught : 

(Three  of  these  are  given.) 

358.  The  following  formulas  have  been  proved : 

(Three  of  these  are  described.) 

A  splendid  means  of  recall  is  provided  in  the  last  chapter 
of  this  book,  where  Breslich  gives  a  *'  Summary  of  the  As- 
sumptions and  Theorems  of  Geometry  Given  in  the  Course 
of  the  First  and  Second  Years." 

In  his  Vocational  Mathematics ,  Dooley  furnishes  a  "Table 
of  Formulas  "  with  page  references  which  might  be  used  for 
convenient  recall.     For  example : 

Depth  of  thread  of  U.  S.  Standard  See  page  142 

D  Px.  6495 

Hessler  in  his  First  Year  of  Science  ^  arranges  the  summaries 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  in  Human  Behavior,  the  large 
amount  of  material  in  each  chapter,  however,  necessitating  a 
much  longer  listing  of  definitions  and  explanations. 

Special  attention  should  be  called  to  the  summaries  given 
by  Morgan  and  Lyman  in  their  text  in  Chemistry.^  Some  of 
these  are  given  in  both  tabular  and  definitional  forms.  The 
latter  are  comprehensive  and  really  give  the  pupil  a  terse 
restatement  of  what  has  been  elaborated  in  more  detail  in 
the  chapter.     In  this  form  they  indicate  what  the  authors 

*  Benjamin  H.  Sanborn  and  Co.     1915.  ^  ^acmillan.     1913. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  131 

regard  as  essential.     The  pupil's  accurate  and  economical 
reviewing  is  greatly  facilitated  by  this  line  of  suggestion. 

A  very  effective  form  of  summarizing  is  used  by  Black  and 
Davis  in  their  Practical  Physics.^  The  ''Summary  of  Prin- 
ciples "  is  printed  in  black-face  type  and  reviews  the  impor- 
tant truths  and  formulas  of  the  chapter.    For  example : 

When  a  wire  cuts  lines  of  force,  an  induced  £.  M.  F.  is  set  up  in  the  wire. 
To  get  direction  of  current  use  the  right  hand. 

Thumb.    Motion. 

Forefinger.    Flux. 

Center  finger.    Direction  of  Current. 
Magnitude  of  £.  M.  F.  varies  as  speed  X  flux  X  tunii. 
Slip  rings  give  alternating  ciurent. 
Commutative  give  direct  current. 

Dynamo  does  not  make  energy,  it  transforms  mechanical  into  electric 
energy. 

Motor  transforms  electrical  energy  into  mechanical  energy. 

In  his  three  volumes  on  literature  William  Long  has  given 
careful  attention  to  the  summarizing  of  each  period.  The 
subheads  of  these  summaries  cover  the  points  indicated  by 
the  following :  Summary  of  the  Revolutionary  Period,  Litera- 
ture, Typical  Writers,  First  American  Novels.  The  details 
of  the  chapters  are  well  condensed  and  coordinated  so  that 
the  reader  obtains  in  tabloid  form  a  clear  impression  of 
the  meaning  of  a  particular  unit  in  the  development  of  the 
course. 

Questions  and  Problems  Following  Each  Chapter.  These 
are  of  great  help  in  two  particulars.  They  make  reviewing 
convenient,  but  their  chief  value  lies  in  stimulating  the  pupil 
to  apply  what  he  has  studied  and  to  think  out  the  solution  of 
the  problems  suggested  by  the  author,  especially  if  these  prob- 

^  Macmillan.     191 7. 


134  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Attention  should  also  be  called  to  the  questions  in  How 
to  Teach  by  Strayer  and  Norsworthy,^  where  the  student 
is  directed  to  think  of  teaching  in  the  terms  of  the  actual 
school  situation.  For  example,  at  the  close  of  the  chapter 
on  "  The  Significance  of  Individual  Differences  "  the  authors 
ask: 

13.  Will  a  boy  who  has  unusual  ability  in  music  certainly  be 
superior  in  all  other  subjects  ? 

14.  Why  are  children  who  skip  a  grade  apt  to  be  able  to  skip 
again  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  years  ? 

15.  Are  you  able  to  distinguish  differences  in  type  of  mind 
(or  general  mental  make-up)  among  the  children  in  your  classes  ? 
Give  illustrations. 

16.  What  changes  in  school  organization  would  you  advocate 
for  the  sake  of  adjusting  the  teaching  done  to  the  varying  capacities 
of  children? 

17.  How  should  a  teacher  adjust  his  work  to  the  individual 
differences  in  capacity  or  in  achievement  presented  by  the  usual 
class  group? 

From  the  current  hostility  toward  Latin  it  might  seem  as 
though  this  subject  were  doomed  to  the  ignominy  of  serving 
no  clear  and  vital  purpose  or  interest  for  the  usual  pupil. 
Only  rarely  does  one  find  that  the  author  of  a  textbook  in 
either  ancient  or  modern  language  has  tried  to  provoke  real 
thinking  beyond  the  formal  perceptualizing  among  case 
endings  and  problems  of  locution.  And  yet  one  feels  that  sub- 
ject-matter in  Caesar  and  Virgil  (not  to  mention  the  other 
texts)  is  potentially  thought-provoking,  and  that  some  of 
these  possibilities  ought  to  be  suggested  to  the  pupil  and  to 
the  unawakened  teacher  by  the  author.  Fairclough  and 
iMacmillan,  191 7. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  135 

Brown  ^  have  succeeded  in  listing  many  admirable  questions 
that  ought  to  arouse  real  studying.  For  example,  among  the 
questions  on  Book  I  are  these : 

What  passages  show  the  character  of  yEneas?  What  char- 
acteristics do  you  find  emphasized?  What  are  the  essential 
qualities  of  a  leader  ?  Does  JEnesis  possess  them  ?  (Cite  passages 
to  show  reasons  for  your  opinion).  .  .  .  How  does  Latin  verse 
differ  from  English?  Describe  the  meter  of  the  ^neid.  What 
English  verse-forms  are  used  to  translate  it  ?  How  does  Tennyson 
describe  it  ?  .  .  .  Quote  five  reminiscences  of  Book  I  in  English 
writers. 

At  the  dose  of  Book  VI  are  a  large  number  of  unusual 
stimuli  to  reflection  and  correlation.  Surely  the  following 
under  the  guidance  of  an  enthusiastic  and  well-informed 
teacher  should  keep  the  pupils  alert : 

Which  of  the  first  six  books  could  be  omitted  with  least  injury 
to  the  poem  as  a  whole  ?  What  do  you  consider  the  most  beautiful 
passage  in  the  poem?  What  effects  beneficial  to  Rome  would  such 
a  poem  be  expected  to  produce?  What  are  the  leading  ideas 
animating  the  poem?  .  .  .  Was  Virgil  a  religious  poet?  .  .  . 
Illustrate  the  spirituality  of  the  Mneid.  ...  To  what  Greek 
and  Roman  poets  was  Virgil  most  indebted  ?  What  has  been  the 
extent  of  his  influence  on  European  literature  in  general?  On 
English  poetry?  .  .  .  Cite  six  Virgilian  expressions  which  have 
become  proverbial,  etc. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  Towne's  Social  Prob- 
lems. Each  chapter  is  summarized  in  a  list  of  review  ques- 
tions that  aim  to  emphasize  the  discussion  as  directed  by  the 
author.  But  at  the  close  of  the  book  is  a  generous  supply  of 
supplementary  questions  whose  consideration  will  quicken 
*  Virgil's  Mneid.     Benjamin  H.  Sanborn  and  Co.,  1914. 


136  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

the  pupil's  interest  in  his  environment.  The  questions  are 
grouped  under  chapter  headings  to  correspond  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  text. 

In  his  American  Literature'^  Dr.  Long  explains  that  the  Sug- 
gestive Questions  appended  to  each  chapter  "  are  not  to  be 
considered  as  an  examination.  They  are  intended  chiefly  to 
stimulate  the  pupil's  thinking,  to  encourage  his  independent 
judgment,  and  occasionally  to  lead  him  away  into  a  field  of 
pleasant  research."  Such  questions  as  the  following  are  more 
than  formal  didactic  class  exercises. 

Of  Bradford's  History  the  scholarly  Senator  Hoar  said,  "I  read 
again  and  with  renewed  enthusiasm  and  delight  the  noble  and 
touching  story."  Speaking  of  his  search  for  the  original  manu- 
script he  said :  '*It  seemed  to  me  then  as  it  now  seems  to  me,  the 
most  precious  manuscript  on  earth."  Can  you  explain  or  under- 
stand his  enthusiasm? 

Name  the  five  books  of  the  Leatherstocking  drama  in  their 
natural  order.  In  what  respect  is  The  Pioneers  better  than  the 
others  ?  What  is  the  chief  interest  of  The  Last  0}  the  Mohicans  ? 
What  are  the  essential  differences  between  the  latter  story  and  a 
dime  novel  of  Indian  adventure? 

Summaries  Throughout  the  Chapter  and  at  Its  Close.  Ref- 
erence has  already  been  made  to  the  current  defect  of  making 
a  textbook  too  much  a  condensed  compendium  of  knowledge. 
This  is  the  danger  of  exhaustive  teaching  rather  than  care- 
fully evaluated  direction  in  the  learning  of  a  subject.  Ob- 
viously, no  one  text  can  deal  thoroughly  with  all  the  aspects 
of  a  field  of  knowledge,  and,  this  being  true,  much  harm  may 
be  done  in  overcrowding  the  book  by  condensations  that  must 
seem  only  a  mere  jumble  of  words  to  most  if  not  all  pupils. 
*  Ginn  and  Co.,  1913. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  137 

Summaries  throughout  the  chapter  should  follow  carefully 
evaluated  details  that  are  plain  and  concrete.  Each  detail 
is  a  thread  and  a  turn  of  the  hook.  The  preliminary  syllabus 
provides  the  pattern,  the  reviewing  syllabus  examines  the 
section  thus  far  completed.  But  between  the  pattern  and  the 
review  are  smaller  summaries  where  the  pupil  ties  together 
what  he  has  just  done  and  observes  the  meaning  of  the  de- 
tails on  which  he  has  been  working.  The  summary  without 
the  detail  is  well-nigh  hopeless,  and  details  without  summary 
lead  to  confusion  and  the  failure  to  build  up  ideas  and  concepts 
usable  in  the  final  and  more  complete  understanding  of  the 
course. 

For  young  pupils  it  perhaps  is  unwise  to  use  very  general 
summaries.  The  itemized  syllabus  probably  is  better.  But 
the  general  summary  by  the  author  is  not  to  be  neglected  en- 
tirely. It  has  great  value  in  suggesting  to  the  pupils  how 
simimaries  should  be  made.  Some  authors  employ  the  sum- 
mary in  the  form  of  definitions  of  terms  that  have  been  con- 
sidered in  more  detail  throughout  the  chapter.  Others  in- 
terpret the  meaning  of  what  has  been  discussed  in  the  light 
of  what  has  been  learned  in  preceding  chapters.  This  might  be 
called  a  **  cumulative  sunmiary,"  and,  when  studied  under  the 
teacher^s  direction,  is  doubtless  very  helpful  in  the  gradual 
unfolding  of  the  pupil's  appreciation  and  understanding. 
Such  a  *'  cumulative  summary "  might  well  run  throughout 
the  book  in  addition  to  the  more  detailed  syllabi. 

Illustrations  of  intra-textual  summaries.  Tarr  in  his  New 
Physical  Geography  ^  makes  excellent  use  of  this  type  of  sum- 
mary. Brief  and  still  comprehensive,  these  sunamaries  give 
the  gist  of  each  section  in  a  chapter.    They  are  printed  in 

^Macmillan,  191 7. 


138  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

italics  and  in  blackface  type  are  headed  "  Summary."  In  the 
chapter  on  ^'  The  Ocean  "  there  are  twenty  of  these  summaries. 
At  the  end  of  the  chapter  there  is  a  topical  outline  that  gives 
the  main  headings  of  each  section. 

References  for  Additional  Reading.  Fortunately  no  well- 
trained  teacher  any  longer  limits  himself  to  one  textbook. 
Especially  in  these  days  of  the  rapid  extension  of  knowledge 
and  the  wide  diversity  of  interests  is  it  impossible  for  one 
text  to  contain  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  any  one  subject. 
Authors  differ  in  their  point  of  view  and  interpretation.  Some 
texts  are  valuable  for  one  thing  and  others  for  another.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  that  careful  and  detailed  references  be 
given  in  each  book  to  similar  treatments  in  books  where  a 
more  comprehensive  discussion  is  available. 

References  to  additional  reading  are  valuable  in  stimulating 
original  organization  by  the  pupil.  The  beginner  needs  in- 
struction and  training  in  this  kind  of  studying.  He  learns  that 
the  author  has  depended  on  information  collected  by  others, 
and  is  thereby  able  to  read  for  himself  what  the  author  used. 
In  the  lower  grades  it  may  be  impossible  to  do  much  of  this 
supplementary  work  and  perhaps  it  is  unnecessary  to  require 
more  than  an  occasional  report  on  such  reading.  But  enough 
of  it  should  be  done  by  each  pupil  to  acquaint  the  class  as  a 
whole  with  the  broad  scope  of  the  subject.  Cubberley  be- 
lieves that  in  every  primary  room  there  should  be  at  least 
ten  sets  of  suitable  supplementary  readers.  ''  By  a  system 
of  exchange  the  same  sets  might  be  made  to  do  service  in 
several  classrooms  within  the  year."  ^ 

References  by  the  author  are  valuable  to  the  teacher  in  the 
enrichment  of  his  own  point  of  view.  The  progressive  teacher 
1  The  Portland  Survey.    World  Book  Co.,  1916. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  139 

will,  therefore,  welcome  such  additional  reading  because  of 
the  light  it  throws  on  the  briefer  form  of  treatment  in  the 
text.  Many  suggestive  illustrations  and  interesting  prob- 
lems are  available  by  this  means. 

Illustrations.  It  perhaps  is  imnecessary  to  stress  the  im- 
portance of  supplying  the  text  with  accurate  and  interesting 
illustrations.  One  picture  will  mean  more  than  many  words. 
In  history  and  the  sciences  illustrations  are  invaluable.  Texts 
on  vocational  mathematics  and  even  books  in  ancient  and 
modern  languages  are  improved  by  the  careful  selection  of 
pictures  that  present  scenes  or  photographs  of  otherwise 
obscure  meanings.  The  tremendous  influence  of  Orhis  Pictus 
by  Comenius,  the  first  illustrated  textbook,  is  due  to  its  rich 
assortment  of  pictures,  each  illustration  making  unmistak- 
ably clear  what  is  meant  by  the  corresponding  description  in 
sentence  form. 

But  illustrations  include  more  than  drawings  and  photo- 
graphs. Charts,  tables,  and  diagrams  are  indispensable,  pro- 
vided they  are  properly  explained  by  the  author.  A  chart 
without  explanation  is  practically  useless,  for  it  is  the  author^s 
mode  of  treating  his  material  and,  while  making  use  of  certain 
principles  and  rules  that  govern  the  construction  of  charts 
and  diagrams  and  tables,  each  application  of  these  principles 
involves  the  author's  own  reaction,  and  therefore  requires 
detailed  explanation.  When  properly  constructed  such  il- 
lustrations are  of  inestimable  value  in  providing  clear  and 
accurate  perception,  without  which  understanding  and  ap- 
plication are  almost  impossible. 

Examples  oj  textbook  illustrations.  In  no  particular  has 
there  been  greater  improvement  in  recent  textbooks  than  in 
the  matter  of  pictorial  illustrations.    The  history  texts  by 


I40  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Ashley,  Dickson,  Robinson,  Harding,  and  West  are  unusually 
beautiful  and  accurate  in  their  illustrations.  Wherever  pos- 
sible half-tones  replace  wood  cuts  and  imaginative  drawings, 
which,  while  ornamental,  frequently  convey  wrong  impres- 
sions. Texts  in  mathematics  are  also  illustrated  by  means 
of  half-tones,  excellent  examples  being  foimd  in  the  texts  by 
Breslich,  Dooley,  and  Hawkes-Tuby-Touton. 

Language  books  are  similarly  made  interesting,  Fairclough 
and  Brown's  Virgil  being  a  striking  instance.  The  First  Book 
in  French  by  Maloubier  and  Moore  ^  deserves  special  mention. 
In  this  book  the  student  may  study,  at  his  leisure,  scenes  and 
portraits  typical  of  French  life  and  history.  Such  pictures 
as  La  Citi  et  le  Pont  NeuJ^  Le  Bois  de  Boulogne,  and  Victor 
Hugo  are  altogether  satisfying  from  the  standpoint  of  edu- 
cational art. 

Books  in  science  are  vitalized  in  part  by  photographs  of 
interesting  experiments  and  of  applications  of  scientific  prin- 
ciples as  well  as  of  the  great  scientists.  Morgan  and  Lyman 
have  made  their  Chemistry  even  more  valuable  by  the  nu- 
merous page  pictures  that  visualize  the  verbal  descriptions  in 
the  text.  While  less  artistic,  the  pictures  in  Barber's  First 
Course  in  General  Science  are  to  the  point  and  deal  with  up- 
to-date  subjects.  Hessler's  are,  on  the  whole,  more  artistic 
but  not  superior  to  Barber's  in  directness  of  appeal.  The 
portraits  of  eminent  scientists  are  particularly  attractive  in 
Milliken  and  Gale's  A  First  Course  in  Physics,  the  half-tones 
of  Lord  Kelvin  and  of  Faraday  being  especially  noteworthy. 

Maps.  Great  improvement  is  noticeable  in  the  newer 
maps.  The  coloring  is  in  softer  tones.  It  is  unfortimate 
and  possibly  unavoidable  that  the  double  page  maps  are  still 
^Macmillan.    1915. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  141 

employed  without  special  protection  against  wear  and  tear. 
The  pupil  in  attempting  to  read  the  lettering  on  the  creased 
portion  of  the  map  can  hardly  avoid  removing  the  map  from 
its  binding.  After  a  short  period  of  service  one  finds  that 
many  of  the  maps  will  be  loose  and  torn.  West,  for  example, 
uses  many  of  these  maps.  Robinson,  however,  employs  the 
device  of  breaking  the  page  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  near 
the  back  of  the  book,  thereby  preventing  the  maps  from 
being  torn  loose  when  the  book  is  pressed  open. 

In  books  otherwise  so  excellent  it  is  unpleasant  to  find  maps 
like  the  Ethnographic  Map  of  Austria-Hungary  in  Robin- 
son's text,  page  738,  where  the  lettering  in  many  places  is  al- 
most unreadable.  A  similar  defect  is  found  in  West's  book  on 
The  Ancient  World,  page  283. 

A  very  peculiar  map  of  Alexander's  Empire  is  given  in 
American  Beginnings  in  Europe  by  Gordy.^  The  boundaries 
of  the  empire  are  printed  in  heavyjajk  blue  lines  which  fail 
to  harmonize  with  the  softer  greens  and  browns  of  the  body 
of  the  map.  The  total  impression  is  Futuristic.  The  reader, 
of  course,  can  easily  trace  the  boundaries  by  this  means,  but 
one  regrets  that  an  otherwise  artistic  book  is  so  ugly  in  this 
one  particular.  A  similar  map  of  ancient  Greece  is  much  more 
harmonious  in  color  scheme. 

Little  need  be  said  of  the  large  maps  in  the  more  popular 
school  geographies.  Both  the  Tarr  and  McMurry  and  the 
Frye  geographies  are  worthy  of  praise  for  their  maps.  Gan- 
nett, Garrison-Houston's  Commercial  Geography^  has  an 
unusual  series  of  artistic  maps. 

Diagrams.    Modem  textbook  authors  show  marvelous  in- 
genuity in  their  construction  of  charts,  graphs,  and  diagrams. 
»  Scribner's.     1912.  *  American  Book  Co.     1913. 


142  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

In  mathematics  books  and  texts  on  science  these  devices  are 
especially  common  and  striking.  Canby  and  others  in  their 
English  Composition  ^  use  an  ingenious  diagram  in  explaining 
the  ''  Brief  on  the  Value  of  Intercollegiate  Football."  The 
authors  have  constructed  what  at  first  might  easily  be  inter- 
preted as  the  front  of  a  grand  stand  but  what  really  represents 
a  railroad  trestle.  Perhaps  calling  the  diagram  the  frame- 
work of  a  grand  stand  would  be  more  apt  in  discussing  foot- 
ball. The  main  heads  and  subheads  of  the  brief  form  the 
uprights  and  supporting  ends  of  the  structure.  The  whole 
arrangement  is  clear  and  interesting. 

Summary.  The  foregoing  considerations  of  the  author's 
direction  of  study  indicate  that  textbook  making  is  not  merely 
an  abstract  discussion  of  a  branch  of  knowledge.  The  text 
is  a  tool  and  it  must  be  used  in  certain  ways  for  the  best  re- 
sults. The  author  has  made  the  tool.  He  is  expected  to 
understand  its  uses  in  accomplishing  the  important  mission 
of  introducing  the  learner  to  the  principles,  rules,  and  more 
important  facts  belonging  to  the  subject  he  has  discussed. 
In  fulfilling  his  task  the  author  will  aid  the  pupil  in  getting 
a  preview  at  each  new  stage  in  the  rather  difficult  journey  he 
has  begun.  He  will,  moreover,  halt  here  and  there  and 
make  note  of  the  vital  truths  already  studied.  These  truths 
have  raised  questions  and  problems.  Because  time  and  space 
have  prevented  him  from  taking  inviting  side  trips  the  au- 
thor will  supply  references  and  guides  to  such  excursions  if 
the  schedule  and  the  development  of  the  pupil  allow  such 
trips.  And  he  will  also  make  sure  that  the  pupil's  compre- 
hension is  aided  by  appeals  to  exact  copies  of  the  things  he 
has  described.  He  will  make  charts  and  tables  and  diagrams 
^  Macmillan,  1914.  p.  175. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  143 

that  analyze  the  problems  considered.  By  this  variety  of 
suggestions  he  shows  himself  concerned  with  the  develop- 
ment of  those  features  in  the  learning  process  termed  apper- 
ception, perception,  recall,  association,  understanding,  and 
thinking. 

n.     SUGGESTIONS   BY   THE   TEACHER 

The  teacher  stands  between  the  author  and  the  pupil. 
What  has  just  been  said  regarding  the  author's  directions  of 
study  does  not  minimize  the  need  of  having  some  one  to  help 
the  pupil  become  acquainted  with  the  author's  manner  of 
supervision.  And  it  is  because  the  teacher  is  indispensable 
in  the  learning  process  that  his  function  as  director  of  learning 
must  be  exalted.  The  teacher  is  not  a  dispenser  of  knowledge. 
He  is  a  supervisor  of  learning.  His  whole  calling  is  funda- 
mentally concerned  with  training  pupils  to  use  their  minds 
both  for  the  understanding  of  essential  facts,  and  for  the 
discovery  and  application  of  knowledge.  This  being  so,  the 
teacher  needs  to  know  how  to  direct  pupils  in  the  handling 
of  the  tool  now  being  considered.  The  author,  we  may  pre- 
sume, has  done  his  part.  Now  the  teacher  supplements  the 
author's  suggestions  by  some  of  his  own.  This  work  of 
supervision,  as  far  as  the  textbook  is  concerned,  will  follow 
at  least  three  lines. 

Evaluated  Assignments.  It  is  a  common  experience 
among  teachers  that  pupils  are  unable  to  evaluate  an  assign- 
ment. They  wiU  either  study  haphazardly,  or,  in  the  effort 
to  be  conscientious,  will  memorize  or  otherwise  study  every- 
thing in  the  new  lesson.  The  author  has  given  several  para- 
graphs in  the  chapter.  There  are  many  details  which  to  the 
beginner  and  untrained  pupil  seem  about  equal  in  importance. 


144  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

He  will  either  become  confused  or  make  use  of  memorizing  in 
his  desire  to  make  a  perfect  recitation.  He  studies  in  order 
to  recite,  knowing  that  his  class  marks  depend  on  his  ability 
to  recite.  There  are  hopeful  signs  that  this  type  of  teaching 
is  becoming  unpopular.  Alert  teachers  act  on  the  theory 
that  in  each  lesson  there  are  important  and  incidental  ma- 
terials. It  is  right  to  expect  teachers  to  know  the  distinction 
between  these  two  kinds  of  subject-matter  and  to  assign  work 
accordingly. 

The  old-fashioned  page  assignment  is  not  altogether  bottled 
up  for  museum  exhibition.  There  are  some  live  specimens 
abroad  and  they  are  as  mischievous  as  ever.  However  good 
a  textbook  may  be  it  does  not  deserve  to  be  studied  in  every 
detail.  Few  books  are  worth  reading  word  for  word  and  page 
by  page.  Reading  and  studying  are  in  their  very  nature 
selective  as  well  as  intensive.  Unless  the  teacher  understands 
how  to  weigh  the  material  in  each  assignment  his  pupils  will 
be  engaged  in  the  lifeless  task  of  studying  one  text  and  will  con- 
fine their  efforts  to  mere  "  book  larnin'."  There  is  need  of  the 
saner  and  happier  conception  of  teaching  which  selects  what 
is  important  and  requires  of  the  learner  intensive  application 
chiefly  to  this  material. 

In  evaluating  assignments  the  teacher  will  doubtless  find 
it  necessary  at  first  to  list  the  important  things  to  be  studied. 
The  beginning  pupil  needs  guidance  along  these  lines,  and 
there  is  little  danger  of  giving  him  too  much  assistance. 
This  does  not  mean  that  he  should  depend  on  such  direction 
throughout  the  subject.  With  maturity  in  his  acquaintance 
with  the  course  will  come  the  ability  to  evaluate  for  himself. 
Evaluating  assignments  in  this  way  will  require  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  careful  study  of  the  contents  of  the  course,  and  a 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  145 

thorough  knowledge  of  the  chief  textbook  used  or  of  the  several 
books  selected  for  study.  There  is  barely  time  in  these  days 
of  multiplication  of  courses  to  do  more  than  stress  the  all- 
important  points  in  the  course.  But  there  may  be  time  dur- 
ing the  reviews  for  a  consideration  of  some  of  the  incidental 
material.  The  latter  is  not  wholly  insignificant,  only  rela- 
tively so. 

When  teachers  realize  that  reciting  is  less  important  than 
ability  to  work  with  one's  mind  successfully  and  happily, 
they  will  find  time  not  only  for  the  daily  review  (the  usual 
recitation),  but  also  for  the  supplementing  of  the  regular  class- 
book  study  with  reports  that  include  incidental  material  as 
this  and  the  more  important  matter  are  related  to  problems 
of  application.  The  textbook  then  becomes  a  tool  in  think- 
ing, which  simply  means  the  ability  to  relate  important  and 
secondary  matters  in  an  organization  that  answers  a  par- 
ticular need.  A  textbook  that  is  merely  learned  by  heart  is 
not  a  tool  of  learning ;  it  is  a  device  for  training  a  particular 
kind  of  memorizing.  But  when  the  teacher  carefully  selects 
the  material  to  be  studied,  and  calls  the  pupil's  attention  to 
these  important  items  in  the  lesson,  together  with  the  re- 
minder that  the  remaining  material  should  be  read  and  con- 
sidered in  the  light  of  the  more  intensive  facts  (but  need  not 
be  so  carefully  studied),  he  has  shown  the  pupil  that  the  text 
is  a  tool  of  thinking  as  well  as  of  understanding. 

Explanation  and  Interpretation.  Little  need  be  said  about 
this  necessary  duty  of  the  teacher.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  each  day's  assignment  needs  careful  elucidation 
so  that  the  common  difficulties  are  anticipated  and  obscure 
terms  and  meanings  properly  interpreted.  This  is  especially 
important  in  the  lower  grades  where  the  learning  process  is 


146  Textbook y  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

predominantly  that  of  understanding  and  habit  formation. 
It  is  a  common  theory  that  the  learner  should  be  required  to 
master  all  difficulties  without  any  help  whatsoever.  The 
effort  itself,  regardless  of  results,  is  valuable.  What  is  meant 
in  explaining  common  difficulties,  however,  is  not  this  ever- 
ready  wilHngness  to  do  the  work  for  the  pupil,  but  rather  to 
make  it  possible  for  him  to  work  with  more  economy  of  time 
and  effort.  The  new  assignment  doubtless  will  have  obscure 
terms.  Some  of  these  can  be  looked  up  in  the  dictionary, 
but  unless  the  pupil  has  been  taught  how  to  use  the  dictionary, 
he  will  find  any  number  of  meanings  and  probably  will  select 
one  that  does  not  exactly  suit  the  context.  Stating  what  these 
words  mean  in  their  present  connection  is  not  doing  too  much 
for  the  pupil.  It  saves  his  time  and  discouragement  and 
failure.  Explaining  certain  facts  of  history  before  the  pupil 
studies  them  in  more  detail  will  make  intelligible  what  he 
reads  and  organizes .  To  work  out  model  examples  on  the  black- 
board with  full  explanation  is  not  doing  too  much  for  the 
pupil. 

The  Open  Book.  What  has  just  been  said  leads  naturally 
into  another  aspect  of  study  that  strangely  has  been  neglected 
these  many  years.  Few  teachers  in  the  past  would  allow  the 
pupils  to  keep  the  books  open  during  the  recitation.  And  to 
have  a  book  open  during  examination  was,  of  course,  horribly 
impossible.  But  after  all  why  not  have  the  book  open? 
If  we  discard  the  memoriter  recitation,  will  it  not  be  a  splendid 
test  of  understanding  to  keep  the  books  open  and  have  the 
pupils  explain  what  the  author  says,  and  give  proof  that  the 
principles  and  rules  in  the  lesson  are  appreciated  and  can  be 
applied  ?  What  we  are  concerned  about  is  the  pupiFs  ability 
to  use  the  book  as  a  tool.     In  years  to  come  he  will  have  for- 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  147 

gotten  many  of  the  details  in  his  earlier  courses.  How  many 
who  read  these  pages  can  work  a  problem  in  cube  root? 
But  once  you  could.  To  revive  the  earlier  skill  all  that  is 
needed  is  to  refer  to  a  book  in  arithmetic  and  the  submerged 
ability  will  be  restored.  It  is  not  vital  that  all  or  most  of  us 
should  know  cube  root,  but  if  some  need  arises  for  the  pro- 
cesses of  cube  root  it  would  be  helpful  to  know  how  to  follow 
the  directions  of  the  textbook  in  its  explanation  of  this  kind 
of  work. 

The  open  book  in  literature  and  history  is  full  of  interesting 
possibilities  in  an  oral  supervised  study  period.  It  is  an  aim 
of  education  to  encourage  pupils  to  express  knowledge  in 
their  own  words.  With  the  textbook  open  before  them  pu- 
pils may  be  trained  to  state  briefly  and  clearly  what  the  author 
has  written,  giving  his  thought  in  a  terse  summary,  and 
evincing  by  the  careful  and  carefree  use  of  language  that  the 
meaning  is  well  understood.  This  does  away  with  the  com- 
mon monotonous  repetition  of  the  author's  exact  words,  an 
evidence  that  the  pupil  has  simply  committed  to  memory 
what  has  been  written. 

The  open  book  should  be  used  in  the  beginning  of  a  course, 
and  so  continued  until  the  pupils  have  become  fairly  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  work  involved  in  the  course.  Occasionally 
thereafter  the  book  may  be  open  during  review,  for  the  re- 
view is  concerned  not  so  much  with  facts  memorized  as  with 
principles  and  facts  well  understood.  Many  teachers  would 
be  surprised  to  find  that  if  the  pupils  were  allowed  to  use  books 
during  examinations  the  results  would  not  be  necessarily  an 
increase  in  high  grades.  Giving  the  pupil  a  page  in  literature 
or  in  history  and  requiring  that  the  author's  meaning  be 
stated  in  a  few  clear  words  might  prove  to  be  a  much  more 


148  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

difficult  examination  than  asking  a  number  of  factual  ques- 
tions about  what  the  author  writes. 

Summary.  The  teacher  must  know  how  to  handle  the 
textbook  and  must  be  able  to  train  the  pupils  in  their  employ- 
ment of  this  tool.  The  tool  can  be  rightly  used  or  wrongly 
used  according  to  the  teacher's  ability  to  guide  the  pupil. 
Helping  the  beginner  to  select  the  valuable  and  disregard  the 
less  important  material  is  one  way  of  teaching  him  the  eco- 
nomical use  of  the  tool.  Explaining  the  common  difficulties 
in  the  new  assignment  is  hardly  different  from  explaining  to 
the  manual  training  pupil  the  peculiarities  of  a  saw  or  of  a 
lathe  or  of  a  piece  of  wood.  Regarding  the  textbook  as  pre- 
eminently a  guide  to  be  frequently  referred  to,  the  teacher 
and  pupil  will  study  it  together  as  it  lies  open.  There  will  be 
days  when  the  pupil's  progress  will  be  tested  with  the  books 
closed,  but  it  should  never  be  forgotten  that  progress  educa- 
tionally does  not  mean  simply  ability  to  recite  well  from 
memory.  Education  means  also  ability  to  understand  and 
interpret,  and  to  gain  these  ends  it  is  not  essential  to  depend 
on  a  closed  book. 


III.    REACTIONS   BY  THE   PUPILS 

Having  considered  the  author's  and  the  teacher's  directions 
as  to  how  the  textbook  should  be  used  as  a  tool  of  learning  we 
are  now  interested  in  observing  how  the  pupil  handles  the  tool. 
However  effective  the  text  may  be  either  by  the  author's 
skillful  construction  or  the  teacher's  wise  and  discriminate 
employment  of  the  book,  it  becomes  for  the  pupil  even  more 
valuable  if  he  reacts  to  it  in  a  manner  that  really  sharpens  it 
for  service.     It  will  not  be  necessary  to  elaborate  the  sug- 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  149 

gestions  that  follow.  They  are  referred  to  here  more  as 
reminders  than  as  anything  wholly  new  to  the  teacher. 

Underscoring.  It  is  only  rarely  that  one  finds  a  period 
or  part  of  one  devoted  to  instruction  and  training  in  the  im- 
portant study  device  of  imderscoring.  The  conmion  use  of 
free  textbooks  has  made  it  somewhat  prohibitive  to  '*  deface  " 
books  with  pencil  marks  of  any  kind.  And  indiscriminate 
underscoring  is,  of  course,  worse  than  none  at  all.  But  if 
underscoring  is  done  with  a  soft  pencil,  and  made  lightly, 
erasure  is  quite  easy,  and  the  result  leaves  the  book  in  a 
condition  little  worse  for  this  kind  of  wear.  If  brackets 
or  parallel  lines  are  used  instead  of  long  horizontal  lines, 
the  benefit  to  the  pupil  will  be  as  great  and  the  possibility  of 
harm  to  the  book  will  be  diminished.  The  work  of  under- 
scoring important  points  or  sentences  might  well  form  part 
of  an  assignment,  a  test,  or  an  examination,  either  in  the 
book  itself  or  in  quotations  written  on  paper  or  on  the  black- 
board. 

No  small  part  of  education's  great  task  consists  in  training 
the  individual  to  pass  judgment  on  the  train  of  experiences 
that  will  certainly  modify  his  development  in  one  way  or 
another.  It  is  not  implied  that  underscoring  and  similar  de- 
vices of  evaluation  will  produce  in  the  pupil  a  peculiar  power 
of  judgment.  They  will,  however,  direct  his  attention  to 
the  need  of  passing  judgment  very  early  in  his  career  on 
whatever  affects  his  life.  He  must  know  what  is  important 
and  what  is  incidental.  He  must  see  clearly  the  difference 
between  the  false  and  the  true.  He  must  distinguish  between 
what  has  been  well  done  and  what  has  been  poorly  done. 
He  must  sense  the  controlling  principle  that  designates  one 
thing  beautiful  and  another  thing  ugly.    As  it  now  is,  he  is 


150  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtcdge  It 

tempted  to  memorize  or  to  neglect  everything  in  school 
work.  He  is  not  encouraged  in  all  subjects  to  weigh  evidence, 
to  verify  statements,  to  understand  thoroughly  what  he 
reads.  Analysis  often  means  mere  outlining  in  composition 
or  simple  experimentation  in  science  (a  merely  imitative  type 
of  experiment). 

It  is  by  careful  selection  of  what  is  important  and  the 
discarding  of  all  non-essentials  that  ideas  gradually  become 
general  and  universal.  One  finds  much  biased  judgment 
in  everyday  affairs,  as  well  as  in  the  higher  realms  of  think- 
ing. Emotional  prejudice  sweeps  away  the  judgment  of 
what  is  really  good  and  of  what  is  bad  in  an  enemy.  We 
cannot  (at  least  we  rarely  do)  see  all  sides  of  a  question.  A 
narrow,  often  selfish,  frequently  hasty  interpretation  sweeps 
us  to  an  unfair  conclusion.  The  trouble  is  that  we  have 
not  been  trained  to  adopt  the  judicial  attitude.  From  early 
school  days  we  have  become  accustomed  to  accept  things 
as  of  equal  value  or  of  no  value,  or  of  supreme  value,  all  ac- 
cording to  the  emotional  dictum  that  commands  us  at  the 
moment. 

In  school  the  line  of  work  must  be  switched  toward  a  very 
definite  program,  that  has  in  view  the  discriminating  indi- 
vidual, the  balanced  reflective  citizen  in  whose  charge  the 
affairs  of  family  and  of  state  may  be  reasonably  safe.  There 
is  no  need  of  individuals  who  have  crammed  their  minds  full 
of  merely  interesting  facts  and  notions  (because  curiosity 
naturally  gave  them  a  bias),  but  who  thereby  seemingly  have 
not  developed  directive  skill  for  themselves  or  for  the  state. 
All  school  work  needs  to  be  characterized  by  the  reflective 
attitude  and  not  merely  or  chiefly  by  the  processes  of  memo- 
rizing and  imitating. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  151 

Notations  on  inserted  pages,  fly  leaves,  or  on  the  margin 
of  the  page  save  much  of  the  time  and  strength  commonly 
employed  in  notebook  work.  They  have  the  value  of  keeping 
the  related  material  in  close  proximity  where  the  pupil  can 
readily  find  it,  and  more  easily  see  its  relationship  to  the 
printed  contents  of  the  book.  If  the  pupil  owns  his  book,  it 
will  be  more  feasible  to  make  extensive  use  of  notation. 
Practice  in  writing  many  points  in  an  orderly  manner  on  a 
small  page  may  prove  important  beyond  the  immediate  needs 
of  the  assignment. 

Cross  References.  Bewildering  indeed  is  the  state  of  mind 
of  the  average  pupil  when  asked  to  show  how  his  various 
courses  are  related  or  how  the  several  parts  of  each  course 
are  connected  in  meaning  and  significance  with  other  sections 
of  the  subject.  And  correspondingly  he  is  overjoyed  to  rec- 
ognize in  one  subject  what  he  has  learned  in  another.  His 
hand  will  be  raised  in  eager  willingness  to  indicate  that  he  is 
familiar  with  this  term  or  idea,  etc.  Much  of  the  confusion 
common  among  pupils  would  be  relieved  if  they  were  trained 
in  connecting  up  similar  material  by  means  of  some  scheme 
of  cross  reference  from  page  to  page  or  from  book  to  book. 
A  short  Une  under  a  word  and  opposite  thereto  in  the  margin 
a  page  or  book  and  page  reference  is  all  that  is  needed.  When 
the  subject  is  reviewed  these  references  will  make  the  old 
meanings  even  richer. 

This  type  of  reaction  makes  the  best  book  appear  to  the 
pupil  as  something  akin  to  an  interesting  puzzle  which  he  and 
others  in  the  class  are  solving.  He  covers  more  ground  in  his 
reference  work.  The  assignment,  which  might  include  the 
employment  of  the  index  as  a  key  to  reference  material,  be- 
comes more  meaningful  if  this  work  of  organizing  is  required. 


152  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

And  when  each  teacher  encourages  similar  correlation  between 
courses  the  pupil  will  soon  appreciate  the  fact  that  he  is  en- 
gaged in  a  work  that  hangs  together ;  that  each  subject  may 
help  him  in  learning  another;  that  school  tasks  are  not  a 
meaningless  jumble  but  really  fit  into  a  rather  unified  scheme, 
just  as  one  experience  in  life  may  be  of  great  value  in  gaining 
and  rightly  using  other  experiences.  "  Book  larnin'  "  changes 
into  the  fascinating  task  of  constructing  knowledge  and  ideas. 
One  book  is  insufficient.  One  author  is  not  enough.  Many 
leaders  are  required,  but  the  pupil  begins  to  realize  that  while 
they  may  differ  they  also  agree,  and  it  is  the  agreement  among 
books  and  authors  that  he  must  find  and  understand. 

Summaries.  It  cannot  be  repeated  too  often  that  one  of 
the  ends  of  education  is  to  train  the  pupil  to  state  in  his  own 
language,  with  increasing  clearness  and  accuracy,  what  he 
has  studied  in  the  language  of  others.  This  need  of  sum- 
marizing can  be  satisfied  not  only  in  written  recitations  or 
tests  but  also  in  oral  expression.  The  pupil  will  have  more 
need  of  talking  about  history,  literature,  science,  and  civics 
than  writing  about  them.  The  test  of  education  will  be  his 
ability  to  use  school  experience  readily  in  the  common  avenues 
of  living.  We  educate  also  for  emergencies,  but  the  bulk  of 
skill,  knowledge,  appreciation,  and  understanding  will  deal 
with  the  common  day's  affairs.  Most  of  us  have  more  need 
of  talking  than  of  writing.  The  brief  oral  digest  of  a  para- 
graph or  a  section  of  the  assignment  is  therefore  valuable  to 
all  pupils  regardless  of  their  possible  careers. 

In  the  business  world  there  is  frequent  need  of  clerks  who 
can  summarize  the  contents  of  correspondence  in  a  line  or 
two.  Clerks  and  secretaries  in  too  many  instances  cannot 
find  the  all-important  item  that  needs  special  attention.    The 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  153 

busy  employer  wants  a  secretary  who  can  read  a  letter  and 
then  give  its  contents  in  a  few  words,  accurately  and  com- 
prehensively, in  the  margin.  This  need  of  summarizing  in  a 
few  lines  is  urgent  when  the  employer  gives  the  secretary  or 
clerk  a  few  directions  from  which  a  letter  is  to  be  framed,  a 
letter,  moreover,  that  will  meet  his  needs  with  or  without 
inspection  on  his  part.  The  rush  of  business,  the  multitude 
of  details  in  all  forms  of  business  and  professional  work,  re- 
quires fine  ability  to  extract  the  all-essential  and  to  make  a 
brief  satisfactory  summary  of  a  number  of  details.  Unless 
the  schools  call  attention  to  this  constant  demand  of  the 
business  world,  and  train  the  pupil  in  this  sort  of  method,  he 
may  only  slowly  and  perhaps  too  late  find  that  his  chances 
of  promotion  are  snatched  from  him  by  those  whose  mental 
training  makes  their  services  of  greater  value  to  an  employer, 
be  the  employer  an  individual,  an  institution,  or  the  state. 

Care  of  the  Book.  We  disapprove  of  the  worker  who 
allows  his  tools  to  become  rusty  and  to  remain  dull.  The 
hunter  is  proud  of  his  highly  polished  gun,  with  barrel  and 
bore  shining  like  glass.  The  machinist  keeps  his  engines  and 
motors  bright  and  beautiful.  And  we  regard  it  as  a  defect 
in  his  training  if  the  pupil  is  allowed  to  tear,  soil,  or  in  any 
way  misuse  the  textbook,  even  if  he  owns  it  himself.  A  weekly 
inspection  of  all  books  is  therefore  a  wholesome  exercise.  It 
takes  only  a  few  minutes  and  it  impresses  upon  the  pupil 
that  part  of  his  education  is  respect  for  the  tools  of  education. 
Toothbrush  drills  are  common  in  the  grades.  Textbook  in- 
spection in  both  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  (one 
might  also  add  and  colleges)  has  moral  value. 

Summary.  The  pupiFs  reaction  to  the  textbook  consists 
not  only  of  the  intelligent  reading  of  its  words  or  content' 


154  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

in  general,  but  also  of  his  evaluating  its  material  and  making 
this  expression  of  judgment  serviceable  by  means  of  dis- 
criminate underscoring.  Supplementary  material,  as  sug- 
gested by  the  author's  treatment,  should  be  recorded  on 
inserted  leaves  and  if  the  book  is  owned  by  the  pupil,  on  the 
margin  and  fly-leaves.  Cross  references  to  similar  material 
in  the  same  book  or  in  other  books  and  courses  help  him  to 
unify  what  he  studies.  Skill  in  stating  briefly  and  accurately 
in  his  own  words  what  he  has  learned  will  be  required  of  him 
throughout  life;  and  therefore  he  needs  training  in  this  art 
of  summarizing,  some  of  which  will  be  done  in  writing  but 
most  of  it  orally.  As  a  workman  in  abstract  subjects  he 
should  be  required  to  take  the  best  care  of  his  tools,  taught  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  neat  and  clean  books,  not  only  because 
they  are  books  and  therefore  the  record  of  human  labor  but 
also  because  they  are  property.  An  individual's  respect  for 
property,  personal  and  real,  is  an  indication  of  his  social  re- 
finement, his  sense  of  social  responsibility,  and  no  teacher 
can  afford  to  minimize  the  importance  of  this  essential  in  the 
training  of  young  citizens. 

QUESTIONS   AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Do  you  find  that  your  pupils  understand  how  to  handle 
the  textbook  as  a  tool  ?  How  many  of  them  do  ?  How  do  you 
test  their  skill? 

2.  How  would  you  teach  pupils  to  make  syllabi  in  the  subjects 
you  teach? 

3.  Do  you  find  syllabi  in  any  of  the  texts  that  you  use? 

4.  Have  you  ever  tested  the  pupils'  ability  to  study  by  having 
them  make  questions  and  state  problems  on  an  assignment? 
What  processes  of  studying  are  involved  in  such  ability? 


The  Textbook  as  a  Tool  155 

5.  What  per  cent  of  the  questions  and  problems  in  your  text- 
books are  thought-provoking  and  vital? 

6.  Have  you  ever  included  in  examinations  the  assignment  to 
summarize  a  chapter  or  a  page  ?    What  would  such  questions  test  ? 

7.  Do  the  illustrations  in  your  texts  awaken  interest?  Are 
they  studied  in  class?  Do  the  pupils  ever  ask  questions  about 
them?    What  are  the  functions  of  book  illustrations? 

8.  What  difficulties  do  the  pupils  have  in  understanding  dia- 
grams?   How  do  you  try  to  remove  such  difficulties? 

9.  What  is  an  evaluated  assignment?  Wherein  does  it  excel? 
What  kind  of  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  does  it  require? 

10.  How  often  do  you  require  the  pupils  to  recite  with  their 
books  open?  What  kind  of  recitation  does  this  call  for?  What 
processes  of  learning  are  attended  to  under  such  conditions? 

11.  Part  of  each  period  might  be  used  for  training  the  pupils 
to  use  the  mechanics  of  studying.  How  would  you  deal  with 
this  type  of  work  so  far  as  the  free  textbook  is  concerned  ? 

REFERENCES 

Blair,  F.  G.    "  Study  and  the  Use  of  Books."    N.  E.  A.  Proceedings ; 

1909.    P.  852. 
Buck,  E.  C.    Guide  to  Teacher's  Mastery  of  Texts.     2d  Edition.    E.  C. 

Buck;  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa ;  1908. 
Cramer,  F.     Talks  to  Students  on  the  Art  of  Study.    Baker,  Taylor,  New 

York;  1902.     Ch.  ix. 
Dearborn,  Geo.  V.    Haw  to  Learn  Easily.     Little,  Brown,  Boston; 

1916.     Ch.  IV. 
Earhart,   LroA.     Teaching    Children    to    Study.    Houghton    Mifllin; 

1909.     Ch.  IV. 
Hall-Quest,  A.  L.    Supervised  Study.    Macmillan;  19 16.    Pp.  166-71. 
Hinsdale,  B.   A.    The  Art  of  Study.     American   Book  Co.;    1900. 

Ch.  vii. 
HoRNE,  H.  H.    Story-Telling,  Questioning  and  Studying.     Macmillan ; 

1916.    Pp.  129,  130,  143-8,  160,  161,  167-9. 


156  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jttdge  It 

KiTSON,  H.  D.    How  to  Use  Your  Mind.    Lippincott,   Philadelphia; 

1916.    Pp.  32,  33. 
KooPMAN,  H.  L.     The  Mastery  of  Books.    American  Book  Co. ;  1896. 
McMuRRY,  F.    How  to  Study.    Houghton  Miffin ;  1909.    Pp.  107-10. 
Parker,  S.  C.    Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  School.    Ginn,  Chicago; 

191 5.    Chs.  XVI,  XVII. 
Sandwick,  R.  L.    How  and  What  to  Study.    Heath,  Boston;   1916. 

Pp.  32-6;  55H5o. 
Strayer,  G.  D.    a  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process.     Macmillan; 

1913.    Pp.  108-9. 
Whipple,  G.  M.    How  to  Study  Effectively.    Bloomington,  111. ;  1916. 
Wicomico  County,  Md.,  School  Board.    "  Guide  for  Teachers  in  Use  of 

Textbooks  for  different  grades  of  public  schools."   Wicomico  County, 

Md.,  Tallisburg,  Md. ;  1909. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  TEXTBOOK  AS  A   GUIDE 

Some  of  the  suggestions  considered  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ter require  additional  discussion.  At  the  risk  of  seeming  to 
repeat,  I  wish  to  deal  with  the  textbook  as  a  guide  to  reference 
reading,  correlation,  application;  of  problems,  and  reorgani- 
zation of  the  author's  material  to  the  needs  of  a  particular 
group  of  pupils.  The  textbook  points  the  way  to  these  es- 
sentials of  constructive  training,  either  by  itself  or  by  the 
teacher's  mode  of  treatment.  Few  texts,  however,  are  ad- 
justed to  the  pupil's  universal  and  local  needs  alike.  The 
experienced  teacher  knows  this,  and  can  only  expect  that  the 
text  selected  will  prove  so  suggestive  in  its  organization  that 
needful  adaptation  will  be  possible  with  a  minimum  of  extra 
labor.  No  one  text  should  be  regarded  as  an  ipse  dixit. 
Its  chief  value  lies  in  directing  the  teaching  process  into  the 
most  fruitful  achievement,  by  introducing  teacher  and  pupil 
to  the  most  economical  and  convenient  methods  of  travel  in  the 
new  territory  of  truth.  It  is  a  Baedeker  and  like  every  guide- 
book must  be  revised  and  amended  and  applied  according  to 
the  peculiarities  of  the  individual  traveler. 

The  Functions  of  the  Textbook  as  a  Guide.  A  guide  to 
reference  reading.  Reference  books  may  be  conveniently 
classified  as  follows:  Dictionaries,  Encyclopedias,  Biographi- 
cal Dictionaries,  Year  Books,  Concordances,  Catalogues,  the 

IS7 


158  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Atlas  and  Gazetteer,  Periodical  Guides,  Reports,  and  Statistical 
Bulletins.  In  a  broader  sense  any  book  or  publication  that 
supplements  the  main  textbook  may  be  regarded  as  a  reference 
book.  More  accurately,  however,  the  latter  division  would 
be  termed  Supplementary  Books  as  distinguished  from  the 
former,  which  in  library  terminology  are  classified  as  Refer- 
ence Books.     The  methods  of  using  the  two  divisions  differ. 

The  study  of  the  dictionary.  Of  these  reference  books  the 
young  pupil  has  more  need  of  the  dictionary  and  atlas,  but 
the  older  pupils  in  the  upper  grades  and  in  the  high  school, 
and  students  in  college,  use  all  of  them  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  Year  Book,  which  is  more  professional. 
Assignments  in  the  usage  of  these  books  are  customary  in 
English  courses,  but  they  should  form  part  of  the  work  in 
any  subject  whenever  needed. 

Assignments  in  dictionary  work  would  include  the  finding 
of  words  by  means  of  the  thumb  index  and  guide  words  on 
the  top  of  each  page.  The  top  left-hand  word  indicates  the 
first  word  in  the  column  and  the  right-hand  word  the  last 
word  in  the  right  column.  Spelling  and  pronunciation,  es- 
pecially the  former,  are  given  in  the  dictionary  with  prefer- 
able usage  where  more  than  one  kind  of  spelling  and  pro- 
nunciation are  current.  It  is  doubtful  if  much  attention  need 
be  given  to  instruction  in  pronunciation  by  means  of  the 
dictionary  in  the  lower  grades.  In  the  upper  grades  and  higher 
schools  it  will  be  profitable  to  explain  the  marks  used  to  guide 
the  reader  in  pronouncing,  but  even  with  such  help  pro- 
nunciation is  determined  as  a  rule  more  by  example  than  by 
dictionary  methods.  Derivation  of  words  is  an  interesting 
study  to  the  pupils  engaged  in  studying  a  foreign  language 
and  might  well  be  used  in  showing  the  practical  value  that 


The  Textbook  as  a  Guide  159 

foreign  language  work  has  for  a  readier  usage  of  English. 
Synonyms  form  another  branch  of  study,  and  one  that  is  of 
peculiar  value  for  accurate  and  euphonious  speaking  and 
writing. 

The  study  of  the  dictionary,  however,  that  is  least  satis- 
factory and  yet  of  widest  significance  is  the  selection  of 
definitions.  A  class  of  seventh-grade  pupils  were  assigned 
the  task  of  using  a  list  of  words  selected  by  the  commercial 
department.  Among  the  words  was  "  accumulate."  The 
pupils  consulted  the  dictionary,  found  definitions,  and  then 
wrote  sentences.  These  sentences  referred  to  accumulating 
hay,  rocks,  straw,  candy,  marbles,  etc.,  but  only  one  pupil 
mentioned  accumulating  wealth,  which  was  the  context  pre- 
ferred by  the  commercial  department.  As  a  rule  we  do  not 
speak  of  accumulating  candy  and  hay.  The  definition  was 
correct  but  the  context  had  been  disregarded.  Kerf 00 1  in 
his  interesting  volume  on  How  to  Read  reminds  us  that  read- 
ing depends  almost  entirely  on  the  context.  And  the  nicety 
of  diction  is  one  index  of  true  culture. 

Training  pupils  in  the  selection  of  suitable  definitions  is  q 
difficult  and  indeed  an  impossible  task  if  the  teacher  disre- 
gards the  demands  of  the  "  set  "  of  the  word  in  a  particulai 
connection.  The  random  selection  of  definitions  will  yield 
ludicrous  results.  In  connection  with  the  study  of  definitions 
it  would  be  interesting  and  not  without  profit  to  study  idioms 
and  even  slang.  The  latter  may  not  be  deemed  wise  by  purists 
in  English  courses  but  all  of  us  enjoy  baseball  slang,  and 
George  Ade  and  his  rival  in  slang,  Billy  Sunday,  are  popu- 
lar because  they  use  these  picturesque  short  cuts  that  in  many 
instances  are  destined  to  become  the  main  paths  of  verbal 
expression.    Slang  is  language  in  process  of  transition.     Most 


158  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtidge  It 

Atlas  and  Gazetteer,  Periodical  Guides,  Reports,  and  Statistical 
Bulletins.  In  a  broader  sense  any  book  or  publication  that 
supplements  the  main  textbook  may  be  regarded  as  a  reference 
book.  More  accurately,  however,  the  latter  division  would 
be  termed  Supplementary  Books  as  distinguished  from  the 
former,  which  in  library  terminology  are  classified  as  Refer- 
ence Books.     The  methods  of  using  the  two  divisions  dififer. 

The  study  of  the  dictionary.  Of  these  reference  books  the 
young  pupil  has  more  need  of  the  dictionary  and  atlas,  but 
the  older  pupils  in  the  upper  grades  and  in  the  high  school, 
and  students  in  college,  use  all  of  them  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  Year  Book,  which  is  more  professional. 
Assignments  in  the  usage  of  these  books  are  customary  in 
English  courses,  but  they  should  form  part  of  the  work  in 
any  subject  whenever  needed. 

Assignments  in  dictionary  work  would  include  the  finding 
of  words  by  means  of  the  thumb  index  and  guide  words  on 
the  top  of  each  page.  The  top  left-hand  word  indicates  the 
first  word  in  the  column  and  the  right-hand  word  the  last 
word  in  the  right  column.  Spelling  and  pronunciation,  es- 
pecially the  former,  are  given  in  the  dictionary  with  prefer- 
able usage  where  more  than  one  kind  of  spelling  and  pro- 
nunciation are  current.  It  is  doubtful  if  much  attention  need 
be  given  to  instruction  in  pronunciation  by  means  of  the 
dictionary  in  the  lower  grades.  In  the  upper  grades  and  higher 
schools  it  will  be  profitable  to  explain  the  marks  used  to  guide 
the  reader  in  pronouncing,  but  even  with  such  help  pro- 
nunciation is  determined  as  a  rule  more  by  example  than  by 
dictionary  methods.  Derivation  of  words  is  an  interesting 
study  to  the  pupils  engaged  in  studying  a  foreign  language 
and  might  well  be  used  in  showing  the  practical  value  that 


The  Textbook  as  a  Guide  159 

foreign  language  work  has  for  a  readier  usage  of  English. 
Synonyms  form  another  branch  of  study,  and  one  that  is  of 
peculiar  value  for  accurate  and  euphonious  speaking  and 
writing. 

The  study  of  the  dictionary,  however,  that  is  least  satis- 
factory and  yet  of  widest  significance  is  the  selection  of 
d  "finitions.  A  class  of  seventh-grade  pupils  were  assigned 
the  task  of  using  a  list  of  words  selected  by  the  commercial 
department.  Among  the  words  was  "  accumulate."  The 
pupils  consulted  the  dictionary,  found  definitions,  and  then 
wrote  sentences.  These  sentences  referred  to  accumulating 
hay,  rocks,  straw,  candy,  marbles,  etc.,  but  only  one  pupil 
mentioned  accumulating  wealth,  which  was  the  context  pre- 
ferred by  the  commercial  department.  As  a  rule  we  do  not 
speak  of  accumulating  candy  and  hay.  The  definition  was 
correct  but  the  context  had  been  disregarded.  Kerf 00 1  in 
his  interesting  volume  on  How  to  Read  reminds  us  that  read- 
ing depends  almost  entirely  on  the  context.  And  the  nicety 
of  diction  is  one  index  of  true  culture. 

Training  pupils  in  the  selection  of  suitable  definitions  is  q 
difficult  and  indeed  an  impossible  task  if  the  teacher  disre- 
gards the  demands  of  the  "  set  "  of  the  word  in  a  particulai 
connection.  The  random  selection  of  definitions  will  yield 
ludicrous  results.  In  connection  with  the  study  of  definitions 
it  would  be  interesting  and  not  without  profit  to  study  idioms 
and  even  slang.  The  latter  may  not  be  deemed  wise  by  purists 
in  EngUsh  courses  but  all  of  us  enjoy  baseball  slang,  and 
George  Ade  and  his  rival  in  slang,  Billy  Sunday,  are  popu- 
lar because  they  use  these  picturesque  short  cuts  that  in  many 
instances  are  destined  to  become  the  main  paths  of  verbal 
expression.     Slang  is  language  in  process  of  transition.     Most 


i6o  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

of  us  use  it.  Most  people  say  ''  cut  out "  instead  of  ''  elimi- 
nate "  or  "  excise  "  and  other  strange-sounding  words.  Slang 
may  not  be  a  sign  of  educational  polish  but  it  certainly  gives 
meaning  ''  a  home  run." 

There  will  be  less  need  in  the  lower  grades  to  train  the  pupil 
to  consult  the  encyclopedia  or  geographical  and  biographical 
dictionaries.  In  the  upper  grades  and  throughout  the  high 
school,  instruction  and  practice  in  handling  all  needful  refer- 
ence material  should  stimulate  in  the  pupil  respect  for  those 
sources  of  knowledge.  Drill  here  is  just  as  essential  as  in 
arithmetic  or  in  spelling.  If  the  textbook  is  meager  in  sug- 
gestions along  these  Hues,  it  becomes  the  teacher's  responsibility 
to  enrich  opportunities  for  reference  work. 

A  guide  to  correlation.  In  undertaking  this  important  work 
the  teacher,  of  course,  will  be  handicapped  if  the  school  au- 
thorities do  not  supply  additional  books.  In  history  it  is 
well-nigh  impossible  to  do  justice  to  the  course  without  con- 
sulting other  books  and,  in  these  times,  periodicals.  Corre- 
lation is  simply  an  appUcation  of  the  laws  of  association  with- 
out which  memory  and  learning  are  impossible.  To  teach 
history  without  referring  to  suggestive  material  in  literature 
and  science  is  to  limit  historical  study  to  little  more  than 
chronology.  The  increasingly  accepted  method  of  teaching 
mathematics  in  connection  with  shop  and  laboratory  work, 
dealing  with  the  principles  and  rules  of  a  particular  assign- 
ment in  the  respective  courses,  enhances  the  interest  and 
faciUtates  the  understanding  of  all  the  coordinated  work. 

The  textbook  guides  teacher  and  pupil  into  cognate  fields 
by  listing  problems,  supplying  allusions  to  related  subjects, 
and  by  definitely  suggesting  that  additional  assignments 
should  be  made  in  cognate  material     When  so  used  the  book 


Tlte  Textbook  as  a  Guide  i6i 

becomes  to  the  pupil  a  real  guide  into  the  larger  reaches  of 
the  subject,  and  he  begins  to  appreciate  that  the  subject  being 
studied  is  not  a  one-book  course  but  that  it  has  fascinating 
vistas  and  world-wide  sources  and  meanings. 

The  pupil  should  be  trained  in  this  supplementary  work 
just  as  carefully  as  in  any  other  process  of  his  development. 
He  is  in  school  primarily  to  learn  how  to  learn.  But  this  is 
not  all.  He  is  in  school  to  learn  how  to  form  and  manipulate 
ideas,  which,  after  all,  are  the  quintessence  of  experience. 
He  assuredly  gets  many  ideas  from  one  textbook ;  but  through 
the  school  and  through  the  public  and  private  libraries  he  en- 
larges the  scope  and  extends  the  variety  of  ideas  so  that  his 
acquaintance  with  any  one  subject  is  fairly  universal.  He 
must  learn  not  only  to  hunt  for  books,  important  as  this  may 
be,  but  also  to  seek  for  subjects,  for  new  angles  of  view- 
point, for  the  antitheses  of  judgments  on  a  particular  topic. 
He,  of  course,  needs  training  in  all  of  this,  very  careful 
supervision,  in  fact,  but  that  is  the  main  business  of  the 
teacher. 

The  problem  of  correlation,  so  far  as  the  use  of  the  textbook 
is  concerned,  is  really  the  topical  assignment,  which  of  necessity 
makes  use  of  more  than  one  book.  Training  in  the  study  of 
this  kind  of  assignment  must  be  given  by  some  one  who  is 
enthusiastic  and  who  is  skillful  in  its  technic.^  A  well-selected 
school  library  is  required  where  the  subject-matter  of  each 
course  is  at  least  fairly  well  represented  in  several  textbooks. 
It  demands  also  specific  supervision,  at  least  in  the  beginning, 

»  Attention  should  be  called  to  The  World  Book,  edited  by  Professor  O'Shea 
and  published  by  The  World  Book,  Inc.,  of  Chicago.  This  work  is  wTitten  for 
public  school  pupils  and  is  a  valuable  attempt  to  supply  general  knowledge  in 
a  simple  and  pictorial  manner.  As  a  reference  work  it  is  admirably  designed 
to  help  pupils  in  topical  assignments. 

M 


1 62  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

by  the  teacher  of  each  subject  by  means  of  carefully  evalu- 
ated reference  lists  with  title  and  page  stated  accurately. 
The  pupil  needs  to  be  encouraged  to  augment  these  lists  by 
his  own  efforts. 

In  some  subjects  it  is  indispensable  to  even  a  preliminary 
grasp  of  the  contents  that  class  copies  of  various  standard 
texts  be  available.  In  civics  and  government,  for  example/ 
there  are  many  of  these  books,  some  relating  more  specifically 
than  others  to  city  problems  and  municipal  government, 
while  others  treat  principally  of  the  national  government. 
Many  of  them  deal  chiefly  with  organization  and  adminis- 
tration of  public  affairs.  Again,  in  others  these  political 
discussions  are  subordinated  to  civic  and  to  social  problems. 
Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed  on  providing  the  pupil 
with  the  points  of  view  of  many  books  not  only  in  civics  but 
in  history  and  in  science. 

A  guide  to  applications.  Whereas  formerly  any  problem 
that  forced  the  pupil  to  think  was  regarded  sufficient  for  class 
exercises,  to-day  authors  of  textbooks  sense  the  imperative  need 
of  stating  problems  that  stimulate  thinking  because  they  ex- 
press practical  difficulties,  such  as  might  arise,  and  in  fact 
do  arise,  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life.  A  glance  at  recent 
textbooks  in  mathematics  proves  how  the  scope  and  nature  of 
these  textbook  problems  have  changed.  We  live  in  a  practi- 
cal age,  which  means  educationally  that  we  test  practice  ma- 
terial by  its  value  for  ordinary  experiences  of  life.  Book 
catalogues  now  contain  such  titles  as  the  following :  "  Com- 
munity Arithmetic,"  "  Vocational  Arithmetic,"  "  Vocational 
Arithmetic  for  Girls,"  ''  Rural  Arithmetic,"  "  Business  Arith- 
metic," "  Business  English,"  "  Civic  Biology,"  "  What  Can 
1  See  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Educ.  Bulletin  1915,  No.  23,  pp.  52,  53. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Guide  163 

Literature  Do  for  Me?  "  etc.  It  is  not  the  school  and  life 
any  longer  but  life  in  the  school  that  compels  attention. 

The  textbook  becomes  invaluable  when  its  material  is 
clearly  presented  in  life  terms.  In  fact,  unless  it  does  so  treat 
its  contents  it  has  no  place  in  the  program  of  the  modem 
school.  Teachers  of  Latin  are  eager  to  show  that  this  much- 
harassed  subject  has  practical  value.  There  is  hardly  a  study 
in  the  modem  school  that  is  not  being  shifted  from  the  tradi- 
tional basis  of  mental  discipline  to  that  of  vital  fimctioning  as  a 
direct  training  in  skill  of  living.  The  shift  has  been  made  not 
simply  to  practical  problems  but  to  problems  that  arouse  inter- 
est in  each  pupil  by  suggesting  to  him  opportunities  to  frame 
his  own  problems,  and  to  solve  them  according  to  the  principles 
and  rules  of  the  respective  subjects.  This  is  an  immense  step 
forward  in  the  serious  concern  of  economy  of  time  in  education. 

A  guide  to  reorganization.  The  preceding  functions  of  the 
textbook  as  a  tool  and  as  a  guide  may  be  summarized  in  the 
all-important  task  of  training  the  teacher  to  reorganize  the 
text  to  suit  local  needs.  An  author  may  be  logical  in  his 
presentation  but  this  does  not  assure  a  psychological  approach. 
To  begin  a  text,  for  example,  with  a  number  of  dry  and  ab- 
stract definitions  later  to  be  applied  may  be  logical,  but  it 
certainly  is  not  psychologically  correct.  The  fact  that  a 
definition  is  abstract  indicates  that  it  summarizes  a  wide  range 
of  observation  and  investigation.  It  becomes  intelligible 
only  when  used  deductively,  but  its  meaning  would  be  more 
quickly  appreciated  if  developed  inductively  and  heuristi- 
cally,  the  pupil  being  led  step  by  step  through  a  series  of 
interesting  observations  to  the  conclusion  expressed  briefly 
in  a  law  or  definition.  This  is  common  enough  pedagogical 
procedure  and  does  not  require  elaborate  discussion. 


164         Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Applying  this  psychological  method  to  the  treatment  of 
the  text,  some  teachers  wisely  change  the  author's  sequence  of 
chapters.  The  revised  arrangement  will  be  determined  by 
the  pupiFs  preparation  and  by  the  immediate  aims  of  educa- 
tion in  a  particular  locality.  There  may  be  needed  a  change 
of  emphasis;  some  chapters  perhaps  can  be  condensed  or 
wholly  omitted.  Probably  few  teachers  of  psychology  follow 
the  order  of  topics  in  the  text  they  have  selected.  Teachers 
of  literature  may  find  it  an  advantage  to  abandon  the  usual 
order  of  historical  treatment  and  reorganize  the  text  on  the 
basis  of  topical  study,  beginning  with  the  current  forms  of 
literature  such  as  the  novel,  the  editorial,  the  essay,  and  trac- 
ing these  back  to  earlier  forms  and  electing  for  intensive  study 
well-known  masterpieces.  The  alert  teacher  will  not  be 
hampered  by  the  textbook  organization,  but  will  construct  a 
scheme  of  presentation  that  is  adapted  to  the  class.  It  is 
likely  that  other  classes  will  require  a  somewhat  different 
kind  of  presentation,  and  no  progressive  teacher  will  expect  to 
teach  the  same  course  in  exactly  the  same  manner  every  term. 

The  need  of  reorganizing  the  textbook  for  teaching  purposes 
is  illustrated  in  the  changed  sequence  of  chapters  and  inser- 
tion of  new  material  in  more  recent  texts  as  compared  with 
much  earlier  ones.  In  algebra,  for  example,  some  of  the 
earlier  texts  devoted  many  pages  to  abstract  rules,  definitions, 
and  examples  without  providing,  until  near  the  middle  of  the 
book,  any  opportunities  for  worth-while  applications.  Equa- 
tions were  not  introduced  until  the  four  fundamental  processes 
of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  had 
been  studied.  In  more  recent  books  chapters  on  the  equation 
are  inserted  throughout  the  work,  the  pupil  finding  by  this 
means  opportunity  to  apply  abstract  rules  and  principles  to  con- 


The  Textbook  as  a  Guide  165 

Crete  problems.  In  this  way  studying  is  clinched  by  early  ap- 
plication. The  older  books,  moreover,  contained  no  chapters 
on  graphs.  Problems  are  more  numerous  and  more  practical  in 
recent  volumes.  There  is  evident  in  these  books  reorganization 
of  a  kind  that  the  teacher  must  make  if  unfortunately  the  book 
is  unsuited  to  his  pupils.  On  the  whole,  the  tendency  in  the 
best  kind  of  textbook  reorganization  is  toward  simplicity. 
The  old  plan  of  crowding  the  textbook  with  pedantic  and  ab- 
struse learning  is  giving  way  to  easier  and  shorter  treatments. 

Summary.  The  text  is  a  guide  to  interesting  side  trips 
or  to  points  of  special  interest  along  the  way.  Its  guidance 
to  reference  material  and  to  cognate  subjects  means  the 
enrichment  of  the  pupil's  grasp  of  the  subject.  Its  transla- 
tion of  rules,  definitions,  laws,  principles,  etc.,  into  life  needs, 
as  felt  by  the  pupils  and  as  recognized  by  them,  makes  the 
textbook  invaluable  in  preparing  the  pupils  to  cope  with  the 
common  difficulties  of  living.  When  used  in  this  manner  the 
textbook  interprets  education  as  a  great  privilege  which  the 
ordinary  man  will  struggle  to  own.  It  makes  learning  social. 
It  blunts  the  stinging  criticism  that  schools  do  not  link  up 
with  life.  And  these  various  calls  upon  the  textbook  as  a 
guide  will  result  in  such  reorganization  of  its  contents  and 
sequence  of  presentation  as  the  interests  and  needs  of  a  par- 
ticular class  may  require.  The  textbook  when  so  used  be- 
comes not  a  dead  paper  education  but  training  for  immediate 
as  well  as  remote  ends ;  and  it  is  fitness  for  immediate  living 
that  the  ordinary  man  wants.  Education  simply  for  remote 
achievement  is  too  idealistic  for  the  average  citizen.  We  see 
the  remote  through  the  eyes  of  the  immediate.  Unless  the 
present  is  well  understood  and  gladly  utilized  the  remote  will 
vanish  in  the  mists  of  vain  dreams. 


1 66  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

QUESTIONS   AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  Do  you  have  adequate  facilities  for  reference  reading  in  your 
classes?  If  the  school  does  not  supply  such  material  how  can 
you  still  get  some?  Have  you  ever  asked  the  pupils  to  bring  to 
class  such  texts  as  they  may  be  able  to  find  at  home,  or  borrow 
from  their  friends? 

2.  How  would  you  develop  in  the  pupil  discriminating  selection 
of  word  meanings? 

3.  Why  is  correlation  important?  Why  is  so  little  of  it  done  in 
teaching  ? 

4.  Can  the  textbook  offer  a  sufficient  variety  of  problems  to 
meet  the  needs  of  every  pupil?  What  is  the  best  service  it  can 
render  in  the  field  of  appHcation? 

5.  Do  you  use  the  book  in  the  order  selected  by  the  author?  Is 
it  necessary  to  do  so  ?  What  determines  the  kind  of  reorganization 
that  you  adopt? 

REFERENCES 

Foster,  W.  E.  "Libraries  and  Readers."  Publishers  Weekly.  New 
York. 

Green,  S.  S.  "Libraries  and  Schools."  Publishers  Weekly.  New 
York. 

Hall-Quest,  A.  L.    Supervised  Sttidy.    Macmillan;  19 16.     172-77. 

Harrison,  F.  The  Choice  of  Books  and  Other  Literary  Pieces.  Macmillan ; 
1903. 

Hinsdale,  B.     The  Art  of  Study.    American  Book  Co. ;  1900.     Ch.  IX. 

Kerfoot,  J.  B.    How  to  Read.    Houghton  Mifflin;  1916. 

Porter,  Noah.  Books  and  Reading.  Scribners,  New  York.  41,  42. 
1901. 

S.  R.  Warren  and  S.  M.  Clarke.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educ.  Public 
Libraries  in  the  United  States;  1876.    Ch.  IX. 

WiswELL,  L.  O.    How  to  Use  Reference  Books.    American  Book ;  1916. 

Wolfe,  L.  E.  "  Many  versus  the  few  book  course  of  study."  Educa- 
tional Review.     Vol.  45 ;  Feb.,  1913.     146-54. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  TEXTBOOK  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  KNOWLEDGE 

There  was  a  time  when  men  regarded  learning  as  something 
mysterious  and  esoteric,  a  treasure  hidden  away  from  common 
mortals  and  accessible  only  to  super-intellects  and  to  the  gods. 
Locked  away  in  dungeon  archives;  recorded  in  heavy  lan- 
guage that  successfully  imprisoned  meaning ;  made  intelligible 
only  by  long  years  of  sacrificial  toil,  learning  became  the  privi- 
lege of  aristocrats  and  royalty  who  possessed  the  magic  sesame 
to  truth.  The  ordinary  man  was  led  to  believe  that  learning 
dealt  with  life  far  removed  from  any  experience  of  his  own. 
The  priest,  the  philosopher,  the  magician,  must  be  consulted 
humbly  and  obediently.  Knowledge  was  a  goddess,  if  you 
please,  whose  acolytes  demanded  heavy  pay  for  the  flash-like 
glimpses  they  permitted  of  the  image  of  the  Invisible. 

Fortunately  for  the  race  access  to  learning  has  been  democra- 
tized, not  without  struggle  and  pain,  but  democratized  never- 
theless, incarnated  to  dwell  among  men  as  servant  and  friend. 
Throughout  many  centuries,  by  trial  and  error,  careful  ex- 
perimentation, profound  reflection,  occasional  flashes  of  in- 
sight, men  have  collected  fragments  of  experience  and  erected 
highways  and  safeguards  of  living  that  are  becoming  available 
to  all  members  of  the  race.  Compulsory  and  universal  edu- 
cation are  watchwords  of  the  hour.  Ignorance  is  the  fountain 
curse  of  human  woe.  Knowledge  is  the  incarnating  prin- 
ciple of  individual  and  social  welfare. 

167 


1 68  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

How  Knowledge  Began.  Education  depends  upon  the 
proper  understanding  and  application  of  experience.  All  of 
this  experience  is  not  available  in  book  form.  Much  of  it  is 
obtained  by  motor  imitation  and  social  adjustment.  By 
word  of  mouth  many  important  truths  are  transmitted  by  the 
Oriental  to  his  children  and  neighbors.  And  this  oral  in- 
struction is  so  accurate  and  so  well  understood  that  it  could 
hardly  be  better  in  written  form.  There  are  many  facts  and 
principles,  however,  that  require  the  printed  record.  Sub- 
ject-matter in  book  form  is  one  of  the  means  whereby  racial 
experience  becomes  accessible  to  the  learner.  It  is  a  con- 
densed history  of  man  thinking  his  way  through  the  various 
problems  of  living  to  a  solution  that  appears  for  the  time 
being  more  or  less  adequate. 

But  man  has  been  stimulated  not  only  by  problems  of  every- 
day living  to  acquire  deeper  insight  and  wider  scope  of  knowl- 
edge concerning  the  world  in  which  he  lives.  Beyond  the 
commonplace,  the  immediate  and  the  physical  is  a  realm  of 
the  unusual,  the  remote,  and  the  spiritual  (as  this  latter 
term  applies  to  all  that  is  not  physical).  The  mysteries  of 
this  other  sphere  stimulated  man's  curiosity  and  awakened  the 
explorer's  instinct  to  find  the  meaning  of  the  unknown.  This 
large  field  of  human  endeavor  resulted  in  theories,  in  certain 
inference  and  fears  and  aspirations  that  became  no  small  part 
of  the  racial  heritage.  One  finds  records  of  it  in  priestcraft, 
astrology,  alchemy,  myths,  magic,  and  in  sundry  other  appli- 
cations of  the  psychical. 

These  two  lines  of  experience,  the  practical  and  the  spiritual, 
do  not  appear  as  constantly  parallel  or  mutually  exclusive. 
The  everyday  problems  may  contain  much  that  is  incompre- 
hensible to  the  ignorant;  such  phenomena,  for  example,  as 


The  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  Knowledge         169 

the  thunderstorm,  the  lightning,  the  cause  of  disease.  They 
do,  however,  represent  man  in  his  relation  to  his  external 
environment.  In  one  way  or  another  he  is  trying  to  find 
meanings  and  fairly  constant  attitudes  that  wiU  economize 
living  by  reducing  it  to  the  plane  of  habits.  He  is  thinking, 
i.e.  trying  to  make  his  environment  familiar  and  so  quickly 
understood  that  each  day's  toil  may  result  in  assured  ways 
of  using  his  environment. 

There  are  methods  of  counting  his  sheep  so  that  the  loss  of 
any  may  be  quickly  detected.  Communication  with  his 
tribal  members  is  important,  and  so  he  employs  gestures  and 
other  motor  reactions  (pictures,  lines,  symbols)  that  will 
convey  to  others  what  they  and  he  can  understand  together. 
Ceremonies  and  rites  become  intricate  symbolisms  of  life, 
meanings  in  which  bravery,  endurance,  loyalty,  reverence, 
etc.,  are  significant  attitudes.  Sounds  are  employed,  at  first 
imitative  and  expressive  of  emotional  crises,  some  of  them 
short  and  loud,  others  long  and  soft,  or  frequently  repeated 
to  convey  accumulative  intensity  of  meaning,  such  as  "holy, 
holy,  holy."  The  passing  away  of  loved  and  revered  ones  is 
comprehensible  to  the  racial  child  only  on  the  ground  that  the 
departed  have  gone  to  the  world  where  live  the  strange  forms 
that  come  in  dreams  and  in  moments  of  ecstatic  vision.  All 
of  this,  too,  is  part  of  his  external  environment;  and  man 
satisfies  his  questioning  mind  by  the  easiest  answer  available. 

One  might  continue  such  detailed  study  as  the  foregoing 
almost  indefinitely.  Enough  has  been  hinted  at  to  indicate 
that  racial  experience  in  the  form  of  instructional  materials 
arose  in  man's  effort  to  understand  his  environment,  so  that  he 
might  fear  it  less  and  use  it  more.  He  needed  certain  media 
of  communication  by  means  of  which  group  strength  could 


lyo  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

be  accumulated.  He  found  some  of  these  media  so  advan- 
tageous that  they  became  part  of  his  training  of  the  young. 
The  latter  would  become  more  speedily  of  value  to  the  group 
if  they  early  understood  some  of  the  factors  that  were  in- 
volved in  the  protection  and  in  the  prowess  of  the  group. 
Slowly  this  store  of  serviceable  knowledge  increased.  Together 
with  it  appeared  many  interpretations  of  life  that  seemingly 
had  no  other  explanation.  These  theories  and  beliefs  were 
accepted  as  true,  and  therefore  valuable  for  the  young  member 
of  the  family  and  of  the  tribe. 

The  Meaning  of  School  Subjects.  The  school  subjects  of 
to-day  are,  then,  little  more  than  organizations  of  racial  ex- 
perience, both  in  actual  physical  living  and  in  efforts  to  in- 
terpret the  unknown.  The  textbooks  present  these  subjects 
in  convenient  form  so  that  the  learner  may  become  an  efficient 
member  of  society,  or  one  who  appreciates  the  interests  of 
his  many  brothers  and  can  work  with  them  for  the  good  of  all. 
He  could  get  most  if  not  all  of  this  knowledge  without  any 
textbook,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  he  would  then  need  to  de- 
pend upon  some  one  to  introduce  him  to  the  facts  of  experience. 
This  guide  or  teacher  would  need  to  arrange  the  material  so 
that  economy  and  efficiency  might  be  assured.  While  such 
studying  apart  from  other  members  of  the  group  might  have 
laudable  advantages  (the  tutorial  system  has  certain  distinct 
benefits),  the  learner  might  fail  to  grasp  the  significant  fact 
that  the  bulk  of  knowledge  is  social ;  it  arose  for  the  sake  of 
the  group ;  it  must  be  used  for  the  upHft  of  men.  The  text- 
hook  is  a  record  of  racial  thinking  organized  for  instructional 
purposes.  It  is  a  source  of  knowledge  which  the  learner  must 
study  in  order  to  apply  it  to  his  own  problems  of  life,  which 
are  mostly  social.    Its  contents  came  from  man's  attempt  to 


The  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  Knowledge         171 

penetrate  into  the  unknown,  and  this  resulting  knowledge  in 
turn  must  be  applied  to  life  for  the  benefit  of  man  and  for  such 
revisions  and  additions  as  experience  to-day  may  provide  or 
require. 

Principles  Underlying  the  Use  of  the  Textbook  as  a  Source 
of  Knowledge.  The  foregoing  statements  regarding  the 
meaning  and  purpose  of  the  textbook  call  attention  to  a  few 
principles  that  must  not  be  ignored  in  the  consideration  of 
the  text  as  a  source  of  knowledge.  We  have  noted  the  fact 
that  a  large  part  of  the  subject-matter  in  the  textbook  is  the 
result  of  man's  reflection  upon  the  problems  that  have  clamored 
for  solution.  It  was  imperative  that  these  puzzles  of  living 
be  solved,  for  only  in  this  way  could  man  progress  toward 
an  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  his  own  life. 

Reflection,  however,  did  not  always,  perhaps  not  usually, 
present  the  desired  answers.  Trial  and  error  occupied  much 
of  man's  time.  As  the  accumulations  of  knowledge  increased 
he,  of  course,  had  less  need  of  trial  and  error  in  the  fields  where 
some  gains  had  been  made.  He  could  study  what  others  had 
wrought  and  more  quickly  apply  their  results  to  similar 
problems  in  his  own  life. 

Reflections  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  its  application  were 
common  processes  in  the  conflict  with  the  temporarily  un- 
known. Man  found  that  with  a  richer  store  of  knowledge  he 
could  make  more  satisfying  applications ;  he  could  understand 
more  thoroughly,  he  could  sense  and  penetrate  problems  more 
easily.  In  this  way  he  caught  glimmering  ideas  of  his  own 
meaning ;  he  discovered  that  life  is  a  process  (is  it  endless  ?) 
of  finding  meanings  and  making  adjustments  that  result  in  a 
closer  approximation  of  unity  between  the  world  and  himself. 
And  so  knowledge  appears  as  the  result  of  a  continuous  uni- 


172  Textbook^  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

fying  and  harmonizing  effort.  It  is  the  basis  of  the  resistless 
urge  to  extend  the  unification  or  the  harmony  already  made 
known,  as  Plato  and  Aristotle  so  clearly  demonstrate.  The 
very  fact  that  man  to-day  continues  to  seek  in  the  same  fields 
as  his  ancestors  indicates  that  he  is  not  yet  satisfied.  The  lure 
of  the  trail  is  as  strong  as  ever.  Man  must  seek ;  he  must 
think. 

Some  of  the  Gains  of  Thinking.  The  effort  to  pierce  the 
veil  has  not  been  in  vain.  Man^s  intellectual  adventures 
have  brought  him  priceless  treasures.  For  one  thing,  he  now 
has  a  language.  He  has  complex  systems  of  knowledge  in 
mathematics,  physics,  chemistry.  History  of  political,  eco- 
nomic, and  social  change  and  progress  has  written  her  fairly 
intelligible  messages.  Literature  and  art ;  industry  and  com- 
merce ;  religion  and  morals  —  these  now  have  profound 
meanings  and  bewildering  avenues  of  application.  Much  has 
been  achieved.  Some  things  have  been  settled  —  at  any 
rate  man  is  satisfied  in  their  presence.  Two  plus  two  equals 
four ;  noun  and  corresponding  predicate ;  the  mutual  exclusion 
of  the  positive  and  the  negative ;  the  rotundity  of  the  earth ; 
the  prediction  of  comets  and  of  solar  eclipses ;  the  conception 
of  human  brotherhood ;  —  these  and  myriads  of  others  are  some 
of  the  controls  of  experience  that  have  been  gained.  The 
student  of  to-day  can  be  assured  of  a  reasonable  amount  of 
fiinality  in  these  and  in  many  other  domains  of  thinking. 
^  In  our  eagerness  for  the  practical  or  for  that  which  demon- 
strates its  functional  value  we  must  not  forget  that  man  has 
spent  glorious  years  on  problems  that  echo  mysteries  even 
greater  than  those  of  time  and  clay.  The  philosophic  interest, 
the  activities  of  classical  scholars,  much  of  astronomy,  a  large 
part  of  history,  literature,  and  mathematics  are  included  in 


The  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  K^urwledge         173 

this  class.  The  learner  of  to-day  must  be  informed  of  man's 
efforts  in  these  fields  as  well  as  in  those  more  tangibly  practi- 
cal. For  all  we  know  there  may  be  other  adjustments  required 
of  the  race,  adjustments  that  have  root  meanings  in  the  worlds 
purely  spiritual,  but  which  also  have  connections  with  the 
physical  and  the  temporal.  However  this  may  be,  we  do 
know  that  ideas  and  ideals  have  tremendous  functional  value. 
Standing  with  Plato  as  he  beholds  the  far  reaches  of  the 
world  of  eternal  ideas  is  an  experience  difficult  to  estimate. 
It  is  like  the  northland  traveler's  gaze  upon  the  shimmering 
aurora,  silent,  ineffable,  majestic,  redolent  with  mystic  charm. 
For  the  young  learner  not  to  have  his  mind  brush  against 
the  noble  thoughts  of  spiritual  explorers  is  to  withhold  from 
him  the  testament  of  his  ancestors. 

The  Paramount  Question  of  Education  To-day.  Now  the 
paramount  question  in  education  is :  What  value  has  this 
boundless  depository  for  the  learner  to-day?  Much  of  it  has 
very  evident  importance.  But  the  question  is  clearer  if 
stated :  What  is  the  purpose  of  knowledge  in  the  public  schools 
or  in  the  textbooks  ?  As  we  find  it  in  all  too  many  texts  and 
in  all  too  many  classrooms,  knowledge  is  presented  loosely  and 
as  a  catalogue  of  dry  facts.  The  purpose  of  education  is  not 
to  introduce  the  pupil  to  facts,  as  such,  but  to  the  facts  and 
their  meanings.  The  meaning  becomes  known  only  as  each 
fact  is  perceived  as  related  to  other  facts,  all  of  them  illustra- 
tive of  a  great  truth. 

Knowledge  must  he  viewed  as  a  system.  The  pupil  all  too 
frequently  is  forced  to  hurry  through  the  many  details  of  the 
course  to  a  rather  hazy  notion  of  the  meaning  of  the  whole. 
He  is  not  stimulated  to  organize  the  facts  or  to  find  in  them 
fragments  of  a  great  unity  of  which  each  detail  in  the  course 


174  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

is  a  necessary  and  important  fact.  Rarely,  and  even  then  only 
meagerly,  does  he  sense  that  knowledge  in  the  textbook  is  a 
bit  of  experience,  which  consists  of  bundles  of  interwoven  asso- 
ciated facts  and  ideas.  The  evolution  of  knowledge  shows  that 
early  truths  became  fuller  and  richer  as  man  used  them  and 
found  them  stimulating  to  new  lines  of  thought.  Knowledge 
is  like  the  growth  of  the  banyan  tree.  It  has  units  but  they 
are  all  connected  in  ways  visible  and  invisible.  Knowledge 
exists  in  a  system.  New  experience  has  meanings  only  as  it 
finds  a  place  in  the  system  of  truth  already  established.  Evo- 
lution of  thought  and  knowledge  becomes  possible  because 
each  additional  experience  modifies  to  some  degree  the  al- 
ready existing  system.  The  pupil  in  the  school,  then,  must 
become  aware  of  the  large  system,  and  that  his  present  task  of 
studying  belongs  at  a  certain  point  in  the  general  whole. 

Three  Functions  of  the  Textbook.  The  textbook  as  a 
source  of  knowledge  has  therefore  three  closely  related  func- 
tions :  (i)  It  presents  certain  facts  of  experience  valuable  to 
man  in  the  past  and  helpful  to  the  individual  and  society 
now,  wherever  needs  of  the  past  and  the  present  are  similar. 
(2)  It  gives  an  account  of  facts  together  with  principles  and 
ideas  illustrated  by  the  facts,  not  in  isolated  detail  but  with 
certain  connections  and  associations  that  tie  together  all  of 
these  items  of  knowledge  into  a  unity  or  a  system.  It  is,  to 
be  sure,  only  one  of  many  systems.  But  the  pupil  is  now  en- 
gaged in  the  task  of  understanding  this  particular  organization 
of  experience  with  its  parts  and  details.  (3)  The  textbook  as 
a  source  of  knowledge  must  stimulate  the  pupil  to  contribute 
to  the  work  of  man  other  and  perhaps  better  experiences  that 
will  improve  the  conditions  of  living.  The  pupil  is  not  to 
study  the  principles  and  facts  and  the  system  simply  for  their 


The  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  Knowledge         175 

own  sake.  By  them  he  must  become  excited  with  the  hunts- 
man's zeal.  He  must  learn  to  discover  truth ;  he  must  learn 
how  man  thought  his  way  to  certain  achievements,  and  like 
him  he  must  go  out  with  keen  mind  and  deep  appreciation  to 
augment  the  inheritance  of  the  race. 

Because  the  fruits  of  the  mind  have  been  collected  so 
laboriously  and  patiently  teachers  must  inspire  in  the  pupil 
respect  for  this  large  heritage  of  man.  The  textbook  may 
appear  uninteresting,  but  it  is  none  the  less  a  depository  of 
some  of  this  inheritance.  It  brings  to  the  pupil  an  introduc- 
tion to  a  large  field  of  knowledge,  some  of  which  is  funda- 
mental to  human  intercourse  and  cooperation,  and  the  re- 
mainder valuable  to  his  unfolding  as  another  contributor  to 
the  ever-accumulating  heritage  of  human  thinking  and  in- 
dustry. For  the  pupil  needs  to  be  impressed  with  the  claim 
society  has  on  him  to  invent  and  multiply  the  common  racial 
inheritance. 

Well  does  Rousseau  write :  ^  "  The  misuse  of  books  kills 
knowledge.  Believing  that  we  know  what  we  have  read,  we 
think  ourselves  excused  from  learning  it."  In  the  same  vein 
Locke  writes :  ^  "  There  is  not  seldom  to  be  foimd,  even  amongst 
those  who  aim  at  knowledge,  who  with  an  unwearied  industry 
employ  their  whole  time  in  books,  who  scarcely  allow  them- 
selves time  to  eat  or  sleep,  but  read,  and  read,  and  read 
on,  yet  make  no  great  advances  in  real  knowledge,  though 
there  be  no  defect  in  their  intellectual  faculties  to  which  their 
little  progress  can  be  imputed.  The  mistake  here  is,  that  it  is 
usually  supposed  by  reading  the  author's  knowledge  is  trans- 
fused into  the  reader's  understanding ;  and  so  it  is,  but  not 
by  bare  reading,  but  by  reading  and  understanding  what  is 
^  imiU,  Book  V.  *  Conduct  oj  the  Understanding. 


176  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

writ.  Whereby,  I  mean,  not  barely  comprehending  what  is 
affirmed  or  denied  in  each  proposition  (though  that  great 
readers  do  not  always  think  themselves  concerned  precisely 
to  do),  but  to  see  and  follow  the  train  of  his  reasonings,  ob- 
serve the  strength  and  clearness  of  their  connexion  and  ex- 
amine upon  what  they  bottom." 

Important  Factors  in  the  Structure  of  the  Textbook  as  a 
Source  of  Knowledge.  Because  it  does  present  knowledge  it 
is  important  for  teacher  and  pupil  to  note  some  of  the  struc- 
tural elements  in  the  textbook  that  indicate  the  age,  the  title, 
and  general  arrangement  of  a  particular  field  of  knowledge. 

Dates  of  publication.  As  a  rule  little  attention  is  given  by 
the  pupil  to  this  necessary  item  in  the  appreciation  of  the 
subject-matter  in  a  textbook.  Dates  are  landmarks  of  his- 
torical development.  Most  of  us  dislike  to  be  considered 
out-of-date  in  dress  or  in  point  of -view.  The  old  fogy  is  cari- 
catured and  the  ultra-conservative  ignored.  But  in  many  com- 
munities an  old  textbook  is  regarded,  because  old,  as  better 
than  more  recent  and  better  informed  books.  How  many 
teachers  and  how  many  pupils  look  at  the  date  of  pubHcation? 
Do  they  ever  ask  why  the  publisher  takes  care  to  state  not 
only  the  year  but  sometimes  also  the  month  of  the  book^s 
first  appearance?  The  usual  method  of  beginning  the  study 
of  a  textbook  is  to  plunge  into  the  first  chapter.  The  title- 
page  is  regarded  as  ornamental  or  merely  for  purposes  of 
identification. 

But  surely  the  rapid  accumulation  of  knowledge  has  some 
effect  upon  what  had  been  previously  collected.  Old  view- 
points must  undergo  change  in  the  light  of  new  discoveries 
and  better  founded  conclusions.  One  of  the  first  things  to 
note  in  reading  any  book  is  the  date  of  its  appearance,  for 


TJie  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  Knowledge         177 

many  of  the  references  have  significance  only  in  their  time 
relation.  Similar  attention  should  be  given  to  the  date  of 
the  editions  if  there  is  more  than  one.  After  a  textbook  has 
been  used  for  a  number  of  terms  new  material  and  important 
revisions  may  require  a  very  different  sort  of  book,  which  often 
is  a  late  edition  of  a  text  already  adopted.  The  latest  edition 
becomes,  as  a  rule,  more  valuable  than  the  earlier  ones.  The 
reprintings  (which  are  often  made  without  change)  and  the 
revised  editions  are  dated  on  a  page  close  to  the  title-page. 
At  times  the  first  reprint  may  include  several  changes  found 
immediately  necessary. 

It  is  not  implied  in  the  foregoing  that  pupils  in  the  grades 
and  high  school  will  study  better  because  they  note  the  dates 
of  publication.  What  is  intended  is  that  in  the  school  certain 
habits  of  reading  and  study  must  be  formed  for  accurate  and 
wise  studying  when  school  days  are  over. 

The  title  of  the  book.  Again  it  may  seem  a  trifle  to  stress 
something  that  really  does  not  seem  to  concern  the  contents 
of  the  text.  It  may  be  trivial  but  it  is  a  mark  of  careful  and 
respectful  study  to  know  exactly  the  title  of  the  book  one 
fellows  with  for  several  weeks.  We  certainly  would  not 
associate  with  a  person  very  long  without  knowing  his  name. 
It  is  hardly  the  proper  thing  to  refer  to  him  as  My  friend  in 
Red,  or  Green ;  that  big  thick  fellow  who  is  my  chum.  Proper 
names  may  be  more  individual  than  A  Textbook  in  Physics  or 
Practical  English,  but  the  title  of  a  book  does  give  it  a  certain 
individuality.  Besides  this,  there  are  many  books  in  red 
and  many  that  are  large  and  thick,  and  these  general  attributes 
do  not  identify  a  specific  book.  The  title  defines  the  field 
of  knowledge  considered  in  the  text.  The  careful  student 
will  know  the  title  of  the  book  he  is  studying. 


178  Textbook^  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Introductory  to  the  reading  and  study  of  any  book  should 

be  a  careful  reading  of  the  title-page.    Its  titles  and  sub- 

j   titles  should   be  understood   by  the  pupil,  and  a  discussion 

^of  their  meaning  might  well  form  part  of  the  preliminary 

lesson  of  appreciation  in  the  subject. 
/      Table  of  Contents  and  Index.    The  Table  of  Contents  gives 
\  a  survey  of  the  whole  book.    This  survey  may  be  meager 
land  general  or  elaborately  furnished  in  the  form  of  a  syl- 
labus.     A  reading  of  it  will  prepare  the  way  for  the  more 
Complex  organization  of  the  book.     If  the    teacher   would 
spend   the   first   hour  in  talking  about  the  contents  of  the 
book  soon   to   be   studied,  while  the  pupils  had  their  books 
open   and  followed   the  teacher's  talk  from  point  to  point, 
this  would  prove  a  profitable  method  of  constructing  a  back- 
ground. 
/       The  Index  serves  the  purpose  of  ready  reference  for  all  the 
\  material  bearing  on  a  particular  topic.     Skill  in  finding  such 
references  and  ability  to  use  synonyms  for  related  material  is 
certainly  a  part  of  the  training  expected  of  educated  persons. 
If  the  pupil  owns  his  book  so  that  he  can  use  inserted  leaves 
containing  summaries  of   parallel  reading  and  notes  on  the 
teacher's  exposition,  it  would  be  good  exercise  to  have  him 
make  an  index  of  those  inserted  pages.     This  would  serve  as 
a  sort  of  review.     Making  indices  of  poem,  prose,  or  classics 
might  form  a  standing  assignment  during  the  study  of  the 
particular  piece  of  literature. 

Another  and  by  no  means  insignificant  value  of  the  index  for 
study  purposes  is  the  saving  of  time  resulting  from  the  skillful 
use  of  it.  Pupils  waste  much  time  in  trying  to  find  topics  and 
references  by  turning  over  many  pages  until  they  find  what 
they  seek.    The  index  points  the  way  immediately.    Forming 


The  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  Knowledge       179 

the  habit  of  consulting  this  guide  is  essential  to  all  readers. 
Drill  in  the  use  of  the  index  should  form  part  of  a  preview  and 
review. 

The  arrangement  of  material.  Another  helpful  preliminary 
survey  is  that  concerned  with  the  arrangement  of  material 
in  a  chapter.  Different  kinds  of  type  are  used ;  there  are 
paragraph  or  marginal  headings ;  there  are  italicized  passages, 
illustrations,  maps,  diagrams,  —  all  of  which  are  so  many 
devices  to  make  the  subject  more  readily  understood.  The 
comparison  of  the  Table  of  Contents  and  the  chapter  organi- 
zation will  form  a  helpful  preview,  and  greatly  aid  the  pupil 
in  sensing  that  the  author  has  employed  an  organization 
that  seeks  to  evaluate  knowledge,  and  to  stress  certain  por- 
tions of  it  especially  needful  for  a  complete  imderstanding  of 
the  whole  subject. 

In  some  books  the  pupil  will  notice  that  the  author  makes 
a  helpful  differentiation  between  what  is  of  primary  importance 
and  what  is  less  fundamental  by  having  the  latter  appear  in 
smaller  type  than  the  former.  Doubtless  considerable  ma- 
terial in  history  could  be  treated  in  this  manner  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  pupil. 

The  author's  style  is  another  important  consideration. 
While  this  feature  of  the  book  may  not  be  consciously  ap- 
preciated by  the  pupil,  he  certainly  knows  when  a  textbook 
is  interesting.  It  would  be  of  value  to  call  his  attention  to 
the  author's  method  in  making  it  appear  interesting.  Any 
subject  can  be  organized  and  discussed  in  a  dull  fashion ;  and 
it  is  also  true  that  many  subjects,  at  first  glance  far  removed 
from  the  possibilities  of  interesting  presentation,  can  be  made 
most  attractive  by  a  spirited  style.  The  textbook  at  present 
is  not  regarded  as  fine  literature,  but  there  is  no  good  reason 


i8o  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

for  its  continuing  to  be  a  prosy,  repellent  account  of  a  most 
fascinating  experience  of  the  race. 

Thorndike  ^  refers  to  another  factor  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  material.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  textbook  as  a  source  of  facts ;  as  an  organiza- 
tion of  these  with  many  interrelationships ;  and  as  a  basis  for 
arousing  the  pupil's  will  to  augment  the  store  of  knowledge. 
The  arrangement  of  material  must  also  make  it  possible  for 
the  pupil  to  master  the  material  in  hand  without  undue 
difficulty.  The  material  is  not  to  be  memorized;  it  is  to 
be  understood.     Thorndike  says: 

Books  could  be  written  giving  data,  directions  for  experiments 
and  problems  with  the  data  and  questions  about  the  inferences. 
The  student  could  be  instructed  to  read  each  helping  piece  of  in- 
formation, suggestive  question  and  the  like  only  after  he  had 
spent  a  certain  time  in  trying  to  do  for  himself  what  he  was  directed 
to  do.  Such  books  might  be  more  effective  than  all  but  the  best 
tenth  of  personal  teaching;  if  the  students  would  faithfully  try 
as  directed  before  reading  ahead  for  helps  given.  But  they  will 
usually  greedily  use  up  all  the  helps  first.  If  by  a  miracle  of 
mechanical  ingenuity  a  book  could  be  so  arranged  that  only  to 
him  who  had  done  what  was  directed  on  page  one  would  page  two 
become  visible,  and  so  on,  much  that  now  requires  personal 
instruction  could  be  managed  by  print.  Books  to  be  given  out  in 
loose  sheets,  a  page  or  so  at  a  time,  and  books  arranged  so  that  the 
student  only  suffers  if  he  misuses  them  should  be  worked  out  in 
many  subjects.  Even  under  the  limitation  of  the  natural  tendency 
of  children  to  get  results  in  the  easiest  way,  a  textbook  can  do 
much  more  than  be  on  the  one  hand  a  mere  statement  of  the  results 
of  reasoning  such  as  an  ordinary  geography  or  German  graromar 
is,  or  on  the  other  hand  a  mere  statement  of  problems  such  as  the 
ordinary  arithmetic  or  German  reader  is. 

1  Education,  pp.  164,  5.     Macmillan,  1912. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Source  of  Knowledge         i8i 

If  a  simple,  inexpensive,  loose-leaf  binding  could  be  invented, 
this  might  prove  valuable  in  making  the  textbook  adequate 
for  independent  studying.  But  in  the  lack  of  some  ingenious 
mechanical  device  the  teacher  can  employ  supplementary 
reading  and  group  assignments  to  insure  the  exercise  of  initi- 
ative. The  topical  assignment  lends  itself  to  this  sort  of  in- 
dependent studying  perhaps  better  than  any  other. 

Summary.  Because  the  textbook  records  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  vast  wealth  of  knowledge  that  men  and  women 
have  struggled  to  amass  throughout  the  centuries,  it  is  part 
of  the  educative  process  to  quicken  respect  and  even  admi- 
ration for  this  precious  heritage  of  the  race.  Each  text,  how- 
ever, does  not  speak  the  final  word.  Its  date  of  publication 
and  the  number  of  editions  with  their  dates  show  how  much 
the  contents  of  the  book  are  abreast  of  the  most  recent  addi- 
tions to  the  field  of  knowledge  presented  in  the  book.  The 
title  of  the  book,  it  goes  without  saying,  is  equally  important. 
It  differentiates  the  book  from  others,  or  identifies  it  in  a 
logical  and  intelligent  manner.  The  table  of  contents  gives 
a  preview  and  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  structure  of  the  book, 
while  the  index  saves  time  and  can  be  made  an  interesting 
means  of  review  work.  The  arrangement  of  material,  to- 
gether with  an  attractive  style,  is  all-important  in  making  the 
pupil's  introduction  to  a  field  of  knowledge  stimulating  and 
satisfying. 

QUESTIONS   AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  Why  was  learning  confined  to  only  the  few  in  ancient 
times?    Has  this  attitude  entirely  changed? 

2.  How  has  man  evolved  systems  of  knowledge? 

3.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  various  subjects  in  the  light 
of  the  evolution  of  knowledge  ? 


1 82  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

4.  What  attitude  toward  the  various  subjects  should  be 
developed  in  the  pupil  ? 

5.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  textbook  as  a  record  of  human 
thinking  ? 

6.  How  are  the  books  misused  according  to  Rousseau  and 
Locke?    Does  reading  imply  studying? 

7.  Why  are  dates  of  publication  important?  Have  you  ever 
given  questions  on  them  in  examinations? 

8.  How  would  you  train  pupils  to  use  the  table  of  contents  and 
the  index? 

9.  Have  you  studied  the  arrangement  of  the  textbook  with 
your  pupils?  What  advantages  might  be  expected  from  such  a 
study  on  their  part? 

10.   Do  you  think  Thorndike^s  suggestion  regarding  the  arrange- 
ment of  textbooks  feasible? 

REFERENCES 

Bagley,  W.  C.    Educational  Values.    Macmillan;  1913. 

BoYER,  C.  C.    Modern  Methods  for  Teachers.    Lippincott;  1908;  Ch.  3. 

De  Garmo,  C.  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.  Vol.  I.  Mac- 
millan; 1913. 

Johnston  and  Others.    High  School  Education.    Scribner;  1912. 

Karpinski,  L.  C.  "Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics."  School 
and  Society,  Vol.  5 :  78-86 ;  Jan.  20,  1917. 

Kellar,  A.  G.    Societal  Evolution.    Macmillan;  191 5. 

Miller,  G.  A.  "  Historical  Notes  in  Text -books  on  Secondary  Mathe- 
matics." School  Science  and  Mathematics,  Vol.  15  :  806-9;  Dec, 
191 5.  "History  and  Use  of  Mathematics  Textbooks."  School 
and  Society,  Vol.  4:  918-24;  Dec.  16,  1916. 

Miller,  W.  L.  "  Chemical  Philosophy  of  the  High  School  Textbooks." 
Science,  Vol.  34:   257-63;  Sept.  i,  1911. 

Sleight,  W.  G.    Educational  Values  and  Methods.    Oxford;  191 5. 

Strong,  E.  A.  "  Elementary  Textbooks  in  Chemistry."  Science,  Vol. 
34:  408,  9;  Sept.  29,  191 1. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.    Education.    Macmillan;  191 2,  pp.  164-7. 


CHAPTER  Vm 
THE  TEXTBOOK  AS  A  MEANS  OF  INTERPRETING  TRUTH 

The  Observation  Point  of  Knowledge.  In  the  preceding 
chapter  the  statement  was  made  that  the  textbook  is  really 
an  account  of  how  men  have  sought  to  adjust  themselves  to 
certain  conditions  in  their  environment.  Now  in  this  way, 
and  now  in  that,  man  has  tried  to  understand  some  of  the 
mysteries  that  even  to-day  confront  him  on  every  hand.  He 
has  answered  many  questions.  He  has  solved  many  prob- 
lems. But  new  light  breaks  upon  his  knowledge  every  day,  so 
that  he  finds  his  facts  and  ideas  in  a  perpetual  state  of  flux. 
To-day's  conclusions  may  be  discarded  to-morrow,  and  new 
hypotheses  may  come  into  the  control  of  investigation  and 
experiment.  Doctors  differ  among  themselves ;  men  engaged 
in  a  debate  are  frequently  seen  to  be  in  common  agreement, 
differing  only  in  their  use  of  terms ;  each  one  of  us  can  view 
at  best  only  a  small  portion  of  the  vast  panorama  of  life. 
Much  of  the  disagreement  current  among  the  learned  is  due 
to  the  different  angles  of  vision  they  select  in  their  field  of 
study. 

The  Necessary  Bias  of  a  Textbook.  Now,  each  author  of  a 
textbook  interprets  his  field  of  subject-matter  according  to 
certain  theories  that  he  has  come  to  accept.  He  may  be  right 
as  far  as  he  goes,  but  his  observation  is  necessarily  incomplete. 
If  his  theory  is  not  based  on  demonstrable  evidence,  his  con- 

183 


184  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

elusions  are  likely  to  be  erroneous.  In  studying  a  textbook, 
therefore,  it  becomes  essential  to  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  one 
author's  interpretation ;  it  is  only  one  view  of  a  large  field 
that  must  be  seen  from  many  sides,  and  which  may  be  under- 
stood better  from  one  angle  of  vision  than  from  another. 

Factors  of  Interpretation.  This  fact  makes  it  important 
to  train  the  pupil  to  note  some  of  the  factors  that  belong  to 
the  textbook  as  a  means  of  interpreting  to  the  present  gen- 
eration what  many  minds  have  found  important  for  their  own 
day. 

Knowing  the  Author  and  the  Publisher.  Acquaintanceship 
with  the  author  forms  a  basis  of  judging  the  value  of  the  in- 
terpretation followed  throughout  his  book.  He  may  be  a 
free-lance  who  has  no  regard  for  concerted  opinion.  This 
need  not  mean  that  he  is  wrong,  but  it  constrains  the  student 
to  investigate  carefully  the  author's  reasons  for  holding  the 
point  of  view  he  does.  He  may  be  a  conscientious  investi- 
gator who  bases  his  conclusions  on  his  own  and  others'  re- 
search. If  his  training  and  preparation  have  been  broad 
and  thorough,  the  reader  is  more  inclined  to  accept  his  state- 
ments as  safe  and  constructive  for  educational  purposes. 
The  personal  element,  then,  cannot  be  disregarded  in  select- 
ing a  textbook  or  in  following  its  plan  of  organization. 

And  yet,  all  too  many  readers  fail  to  become  informed  of 
the  author's  record.  The  publishers  sense  the  importance  of 
the  personal  element  by  printing  below  the  author's  name  on 
the  title-page  his  official  position.  This  identifies  him  to 
some  extent.  If  he  is  connected  with  a  reputable  institution 
that  is  known  for  its  scholarship  and  its  wide  educational 
influence,  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  he  has  some  ability 
for  the  task  he  has  performed  in  writing  the  textbook.     It 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth     185 

does  not  guarantee,  of  course,  that  his  product  is  beyond 
criticism.  He  may  be  the  spokesman  of  a  school  of  theorists 
whose  conclusions  are  diflSicult  to  accept ;  but  if  his  services 
have  been  sought  by  an  institution  of  learning  that  is  con- 
structive and  progressively  conservative,  it  may  safely  be 
assumed  that  he  is  so  connected  for  very  good  reasons. 

Similar  information  regarding  the  publisher  of  the  book  is 
important.  An  old,  well-known,  and  widely  respected  pub- 
lishing house  will  not  be  likely  to  publish  a  book  whose  point 
of  view  is  educationally  detrimental.  There  doubtless  are 
publishers  who  exercise  little  care  in  their  educational  output, 
but  the  widely  recognized  houses  accept  only  those  manuscripts 
that  expert  readers  have  sifted  and  minutely  examined.  The 
publisher's  name  is  a  stamp  of  guarantee  that  the  textbook  has 
merit,  albeit  not  always  merit  sufficiently  high  to  meet  the 
needs  of  a  particular  school. 

The  pupils  should  be  introduced  to  the  author's  record.  In 
the  grades  such  personalia  may  not  be  of  great  moment,  save 
as  means  of  training  the  pupil  to  form  the  habit  of  ascertain- 
ing some  information  about  the  author's  scholarship  and 
reputation.  In  high  school  this  aspect  of  study  becomes 
more  important.  The  author's  name,  training,  position,  and 
experience  deserve  recognition  in  the  beginning  of  a  course  of 
study.  Knowledge  of  the  publishing  house,  place  of  business, 
its  specialties,  its  local  agents,  and  its  methods  of  securing 
textbooks  would  be  interesting  facts  to  the  older  pupil.  Such 
knowledge  is  of  even  more  value  to  the  teacher  who  ought  to 
know  the  sources  of  supply  in  his  own  field  of  teaching. 

The  Preface.  The  contents  of  a  book  are  as  a  rule  im- 
personal. Except  in  autobiographies  and  similar  books,  the 
author  hides  behind  the  subject-matter.    But  in  the  preface 


1 86  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

he  gives  a  personal  message,  and  usually  informs  the  reader 
of  the  purpose  of  his  book  and  some  of  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples that  have  controlled  him  in  writing  it.  Although  it 
appears  first,  the  preface  is  the  last  thing  in  the  book  that  the 
author  writes.  In  it  he  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to 
the  persons  who  in  various  ways  have  helped  him  in  pro- 
ducing it. 

But  how  many  readers  as  a  rule  even  glance  at  the  preface  ? 
It  is  to  most  of  them  a  mere  formality  of  publication.  And 
because  they  ignore  it  the  book  may  be  wholly  misunderstood 
or  at  least  not  used  to  the  best  advantage.  The  average  pupil 
does  not  bother  with  the  preface,  and  as  long  as  the  teacher 
does  not  refer  to  it  in  class  or  spend  any  time  in  reading  it 
aloud  or  having  some  pupil  read  it  aloud  while  the  others 
follow  the  reading  with  their  books  open,  only  an  occasional 
pupil  is  going  to  spend  any  time  on  it.  This  condition  pre- 
vails in  college  as  well.  Some  authors  wisely  include  in  their 
preface  suggestions  for  studying  the  text,  but  these  directions 
are  either  not  known  to  exist  or  are  deemed  superfluous  in 
most  schools.  If  the  teacher  finds  that  the  preface  contains 
material  important  for  the  pupils  to  understand  opportunity 
should  be  given  them  to  study  this  part  of  the  book.  The 
book  begins  with  the  preface  and  not  with  the  first  chapter. 
It  is  just  as  important  as  stating  the  aim  in  an  assignment, 
just  as  significant  as  knowing  the  "  why ''  of  any  under- 
taking. 

The  Introduction.  Equally  unpopular  is  the  average  in- 
troduction to  a  book.  The  very  caption  sounds  forbidding, 
so  much  so,  that  some  authors  have  abandoned  the  term  and 
use  instead  such  titles  as  "  Survey  of  the  Book,"  "  The  Scope 
of  the  Subject,"  "  A  Bird's-eye  View  of  the  Course,"  each  of 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    187 

these  titles  interpreting  the  real  meaning  of  the  introductory 
chapter.  For  in  this  opening  chapter  are  discussed  some 
of  the  principles  and  the  general  point  of  view,  not  merely 
of  a  particular  book,  but  more  especially  of  the  subject  itself. 
Bearing  in  mind  that  the  author  is  an  interpreter,  he  states 
in  his  introduction  what  it  is  he  is  about  to  interpret.  It  is 
true  that  many  introductions  are  too  long  and  too  cumber- 
some. They  fail  to  arouse  interest ;  their  material  is  too  con- 
densed and  exhaustive.  But  an  introduction  that  seeks  to 
stimulate  interest  by  showing  how  the  subject  is  valuable  to 
the  pupil,  and  how  its  present  status  has  been  reached  (at 
least  the  main  trunk  lines  of  approach  to  its  present  contents), 
is  worth  reading  in  class  under  the  teacher *s  supervision. 
Fascinating  is  the  history  of  mathematics,  and  the  romantic 
stories  of  how  the  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Moors 
made  their  contributions  to  the  science  of  numbers.  Refer- 
ence to  such  historical  facts  would  introduce  this  subject 
pleasantly  to  the  adolescent  boy  and  girl. 

The  introduction  contains  the  foundation  of  the  course.  If 
its  arrangement  of  material  seems  to  the  teacher  undesirable, 
adjustments  can  be  made  for  teaching  purposes.  But  the  pupil 
should  be  required  to  study  the  introduction,  wherever  it 
is  of  vital  importance,  with  whatever  guidance  the  teacher 
deems  necessary ;  and  much  of  this  guidance  will  be  required. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  find  in  a  Bulletin  on  the 
Teaching  of  Reading  issued  by  the  Department  of  Public 
Instruction  of  New  Jersey  (191 4)  the  following  statement : 

A  book  is  divided  into  parts.  There  is  the  cover  with  its  cover 
design  and  printing.  There  are  the  title-page,  the  preface,  the 
table  of  contents,  the  body  of  the  book,  divided  into  sections  or 
chapters,  possibly  one  appendix  or  more,  and  an  index.    Pupils 


1 88  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtdge  It 

should  become  familiar  with  these  parts,  their  uses  and  location 
in  the  book,  and  should  habitually  refer  to  table  of  contents  and 
index  in  their  use  of  books. 

Pupils  in  the  grammar  grades  should  also  understand  the  meaning 
of  the  term  '"copyright." 

The  intelligent  use  of  books  will  not  become  habitual  by  an 
occasional  lesson.  Beginning  with  the  second  grade,  whenever  a 
book  is  used  at  all,  it  should  be  used  intelligently  —  not  only  the 
reading  book,  but  the  history,  geography,  arithmetic  book.  When- 
ever a  new  book  is  taken  up  it  should  be  first  examined  to  discover 
its  author  and  its  purpose  (preface), its  divisions  and  their  contents. 

Book  Reviews.  In  the  intricate  organization  of  disseminat- 
ing knowledge  through  books  there  is  a  class  of  workers  who 
earn  a  somewhat  precarious  means  of  livelihood  by  reading 
books  and  writing  brief  summaries  of  their  reading,  either 
critically  or  wholly  commercially.  The  latter  form  of  review- 
ing has  little  value  in  this  connection.  But  the  review  that 
has  been  carefully  composed  by  an  expert,  who  knows  the 
subject,  is  well  informed  of  the  various  theories  of  interpreta- 
tion and  in  the  technic  of  textbook  writing,  is  well-nigh  in- 
dispensable to  the  teacher  who  desires  a  guide  in  estimating 
an  author's  work.  The  made-to-order  review  is  uncritical, 
i.e.  it  is  likely  to  judge  the  book  from  only  one  point  of  view. 
But  the  critical  review  judges  the  book  on  the  basis  of  both 
defects  and  merits  and  is  constructive  rather  than  destructive. 

An  interesting  means  of  training  pupils  to  judge  books  would 
be  the  collection  of  book  reviews  and  the  reporting  of  them  to 
class.  Discussion  would  follow,  and  the  pupil's  criticism  of  the 
book  would  be  formed  in  the  light  of  the  reviews,  either  agree- 
ing with  the  reviewer  or  differing  from  him  with  reasons 
clearly  stated  and  supported  by  reference  to  the  book  itself. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    189 

Forming  the  habit  of  critical  study  aids  the  individual  to 
depend  upon  himself  with  considerable  security.  It  probably 
is  true  that  the  average  man  of  our  day  thinks  much  more 
deeply  and  widely  than  did  the  average  person  a  century 
ago.  Still  it  is  true  that  much  improvement  is  needed  in 
independent  thinking,  in  critical  judgment  of  the  opinions  and 
schemes  of  living  being  advocated  in  newspapers,  on  lecture 
platforms,  in  pulpits,  etc.  The  pupil,  even  though  he  has 
been  encouraged  to  criticize  constructively,  may  never  become 
a  great  thinker,  but  he  doubtless  will  have  the  attitude  of  one 
who  does  not  accept  unthinkingly  everything  he  hears  and 
sees.     Credulity  will  be  controlled. 

In  his  Conduct  of  the  Understanding  Locke  affirms  what  all 
of  us  doubtless  recognize  as  true.    He  says : 

Those  who  have  read  of  everything  are  thought  to  understand 
everything  too;  but  it  is  not  always  so.  Reading  furnishes  the 
mind  only  with  materials  of  knowledge,  it  is  thinking  makes  what 
we  read  ours.  We  are  of  the  ruminating  kind,  and  it  is  not  enough 
to  cram  ourselves  with  a  great  load  of  collections ;  unless  we  chew 
them  over,  they  will  not  give  us  strength  and  nourishment.  There 
are  indeed  in  some  writers  visible  instances  of  deep  thoughts,  close 
and  acute  reasoning,  and  ideas  well  pursued.  The  light  these  would 
give  would  be  of  great  use  if  their  reader  would  observe  and 
imitate  them;  all  the  rest  at  best  are  but  particulars  fit  to  be 
turned  into  knowledge;  but  that  can  be  done  only  by  our  own 
meditation  and  examining  the  reach,  force,  and  coherence  of  what 
is  said,  and  then  as  far  as  we  apprehend  and  see  the  connection  of 
ideas,  so  far  it  is  ours ;  without  that,  it  is  but  so  much  loose  matter 
floating  in  our  brain.  The  memory  may  be  stored,  but  the  judg- 
ment is  little  better,  and  the  stock  of  knowledge  not  increased  by 
being  able  to  repeat  what  others  have  said,  or  produce  the  argu- 
ments we  have  formed  in  them.  ...    All  that  is  to  be  found  in 


iQO         Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

books  is  not  built  upon  true  foundations,  nor  always  rightly 
deduced  from  the  principles  it  is  pretended  to  be  built  on. 

There  is  reading  of  textbooks  and  other  books  a  plenty  in 
our  schools,  but  the  ability  to  discriminate  is  not  sufficiently 
recognized.  It  cannot  be  expected  that  pupils  will  exercise 
judgment  in  these  matters  without  stimulus  and  direction 
from  the  teacher  or  others.  The  critical  attitude  develops 
slowly,  of  necessity,  for  it  requires  range  of  knowledge  and 
thoroughgoing  study.  Beginnings  of  such  discriminate  study- 
ing must  be  made  early  in  the  pupil's  school  career  if  the  habit 
of  comparison  and  judging  is  to  be  fixed  by  the  time  he  leaves 
the  school.  And  this  habit  requires  attentive  repetition  in 
every  subject ;  otherwise  by  lack  of  sufficient  exercise  it  may 
fail  to  function  at  all. 

The  evaluation  and  adaptation  of  subject-matter.  While  the 
foregoing  units  of  study  are  important  in  training  the  pupil 
to  get  the  point  of  view  of  an  author  in  his  book,  the  text- 
book performs  its  greatest  service  as  an  interpreter  by  means 
of  the  principles  and  methods  that  govern  the  evaluation  of 
the  material  for  a  particular  stage  of  mental  development, 
and  its  adaptation  to  the  needs  of  a  particular  pupil  group. 
An  illustration  of  the  importance  of  this  fact  is  the  work  of 
the  Extension  Department  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 
In  nearly  every  branch  of  study  offered  in  its  extension  and 
correspondence  courses  a  textbook  is  being  prepared  to  fit 
the  needs  and  interest  of  the  men  and  women  in  the  trades 
and  commercial  courses.  The  textbooks  of  similar  courses 
in  the  regular  intra-mural  courses  of  the  university  have  been 
found  ill  adapted  to  the  extra-mural  students.  Present-day 
methods  in  engineering  and  commerce  in  machine-shop  prac- 
tice, drafting,  accounting,  correspondence,  applied  chemistry, 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    191 

etc.,  form  the  controlling  principle  of  evaluation  and  adapta- 
tion. These  books,  while  directly  practical,  are  also  soundly 
scientific  expositions  of  the  fundamentals  in  each  course. 
They  are  written  simply  but  technically  correct.  Many  col- 
leges and  high  schools  have  adopted  these  texts. 

Scales  and  standards  of  measuring  educational  achievements 
have  not  yet  been  perfected.  Complete  and  final  scales  are 
perhaps  educationally  undesirable,  if  indeed  possible,  for  it  is 
impossible  to  foresee  what  types  of  training  will  be  required 
by  society  for  the  generations  that  are  to  come.  Scales  and 
standards  must  be  in  a  constant  state  of  revision  and  evolu- 
tion, never  finished,  but  ever  adjustable  to  the  needs  of  new 
conditions.  But  these  attempts  to  determine  what  is  suf- 
ficient and  what  is  acceptable  in  public  school  subjects  have 
effected  important  changes  in  the  contents  of  textbooks. 

It  is  not  bulk  but  weight  that  is  needed  in  educational 
courses.  Such  contrasts  as  Euclidean  vs.  Modern  Geometry 
indicate  that  even  in  the  field  of  mathematics,  fixed  as  this 
subject  has  been  for  centuries,  there  is  a  moving  away  from 
the  traditional  and  a  closer  approach  to  the  needs  of  the 
present.  The  practical  is  interpreted  to  mean,  however,  not^ 
only  what  is  commercial,  but  what  actually  is  educational  as 
well.  In  the  light  of  this  broad  practical  trend  in  modern 
education  all  subject-matter  in  the  schools  is  being  reorganized 
so  that  what  is  valuable  may  really  function  in  the  develop- 
ment of  citizenship  for  to-day,  and  so  reorganized  also,  that 
what  is  merely  perfunctory  or  formally  abstract  may  be  either 
discarded  or  carefully  minimized. 

By  means  of  tests  and  statistical  measurements  some  of 
the  essentials  in  school  subjects  have  been  formulated,  both 
for  the  elementary  and  the  secondary  courses.     If  we  bear 


192  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

in  mind  the  historical  fact  that  school  subjects  are  simply 
racial  experiences  organized  for  the  purpose  of  making  younger 
generations  acquainted  with  the  heritage  of  human  endeavor, 
then  it  is  evident  that  only  those  experiences  which  still  func- 
tion toward  mental  development  and  social  progress  deserve 
first  place  in  the  public  school.  There  are  many  topics,  many 
incidents,  and  doubtless  numerous  problems  that  can  well  be 
neglected  in  the  pubUc  school  courses,  but  which  still  occupy  con- 
siderable space  in  the  textbook.  The  testament  of  knowledge 
has  not  been  properly  executed.  Our  generation  of  children  is  not 
getting  its  proper  share ;  it  is  being  burdened  by  responsibili- 
ties that  prove  to  be,  educationally,  liabilities  rather  than  assets. 

Reference  to  several  of  the  subjects  will  show  how  un- 
standardized  is  the  selection  of  subject-matter. 

The  Elementary  Subjects.  American  History.  The  fol- 
lowing average  distribution  of  subject-matter  in  seven  his- 
tory textbooks  and  in  the  recommendations  of  the  Committee 
of  Eight  shows  considerable  variability.^ 

TABLE  vn 


Average  Per 

Cent  of  Total 

Space 


Amount  op 
Space  Recom- 
mended BY 
Committee  of 
Eight 


Period  of  exploration  and  discovery  .     .     . 
Period  of  Colonial  development    .... 

Period  of  Colonial  wars 

Prerevolutionary  period 

The  War  of  the  Revolution 

1783-1812      

1812-1861      

The  Civil  War 

1865  to  Present  Time,  or  Publication  Date 


8.27 

15-95 

3-67 

4.11 

9.58 

14.17 

21.01 

10.22 

1445 


12.90 

21.20 
3.10 
2.06 

14.40 
8.70 

22.70 
6.10 
9-30 


*  Sixteenth  Year  Book,  Nat'l  Soc.  for  the  Study  of  Educ,  p.  144. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth     193 

According  to  this  table  the  Committee  of  Eight  finds  that 
authors  of  textbooks  minimize  exploration  and  discovery, 
colonial  development,  the  revolution,  1812-1861,  and  stress 
colonial  wars,  the  prerevolutionary  period,  1 783-181 2,  the 
civil  war,  and  events  since  1865.  There  doubtless  has 
been  too  much  emphasis  laid  on  the  civil  war.  Fifty  years 
hence  textbooks  in  American  history  probably  will  devote 
much  less  space  to  it,  especially  as  compared  with  the  present 
World  War.  Much  of  the  material  since  1865  deals  with 
industrial  and  commercial  development  and  has  peculiar  sig- 
nificance in  the  understanding  of  the  present  world  crisis. 

Arithmetic.  A  study  of  four  textbooks  in  arithmetic  brings 
to  light  some  rather  striking  facts.^  Out  of  a  total  of  1023 
types  of  practical  problems  721,  or  71  per  cent,  occur  in  occu- 
pational activities.  The  following  table  contains  the  summary 
of  a  much  more  detailed  analysis : 


TABLE  vni 


(i)  Agriculture,  forestry,  and  animal  husbandry 

(2)  Extraction  of  minerals 

(3)  Manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries 

(4)  Transportation 

(5)  Trade 

(6)  Public  service  (not  elsewhere  classified)    .     . 

(7)  Professional  service 

(8)  Domestic  and  personal  service 

(9)  Clerical  occupations 


Pkr  Cent  or 

Total  Nuhbks  or 

Type  Psoblzms 

10.8 

0.2 

x8.l 

9.9 
21.9 
6.2 
2.1 
0.8 
0.4 


Monroe  informs  us  that  only  9.5  per  cent  of  the  working 
population  are  engaged  in  "  trade  ".  And  yet  more  type  prob- 
lems are  devoted  to  trade  than  to  any  of  the  other  occupa- 
»  Walter  S.  Monroe,  Sixteenth  Year  Book  of  NatM  See.  for  the  Study  of  Educ. 


194  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

tions.  A  significant  33.2  per  cent  are  engaged  in  "  agricul- 
ture, forestry,  and  animal  husbandry,"  but  only  10.8  of  the 
problems  in  four  textbooks  deal  with  the  needs  of  this  class  of 
occupation.  No  problems  are  given  for  a  large  number  of 
the  specified  occupations  which  make  up  55  per  cent  of  the 
total  working  population.  The  professions  are  seriously 
neglected,  although  clergymen,  lawyers,  judges,  and  justices, 
musicians  and  teachers  of  music,  physicians  and  surgeons, 
school-teachers,  and  trained  nurses  all  together  make  up  3.2  of 
all  workers.  Only  75  problems  deal  with  the  work  of  these 
professions,  and  of  these  60  stress  teaching  in  the  public 
school ;  but  there  are  no  problems  dealing  with  the  ministry, 
music,  medicine,  surgery,  and  nursing. 

The  obvious  answer  to  these  objections  is,  of  course,  that 
the  pupils  in  the  elementary  school  are  not  vitally  interested 
in  these  professions,  and  that  the  arithmetic  problems  in  these 
professions  are  necessarily  very  few.  But  in  all  of  them  buy- 
ing and  selling,  percentage,  fractions,  and  the  four  funda- 
mentals are  frequently  used. 

Monroe's  study  shows  also  that  authors  of  textbooks  are 
far  from  agreeing  on  the  type  problems  of  arithmetic.  He 
finds  that  the  frequency  with  which  type  problems  are  re- 
peated is  not  always  in  accord  with  the  needs  of  the  pupils ; 
some  problems  are  repeated  too  often  and  others  not  often 
enough.  Furthermore,  Monroe's  preliminary  investigation 
shows  that  type  problems  of  considerable  complexity  appear 
much  less  frequently  than  those  comparatively  simple.  The 
types  with  the  five  highest  frequencies  are : 

At  $1.75  each,  what  will  17  books  cost? 

A  man  borrowed  $250  on  January  15,  at  6%.  How  much  was 
the  interest  on  October  15? 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth     195 

If  I  borrow  $50,  at  6%,  on  February  8  of  this  year,  how  much 
will  be  due  on  May  2  of  next  year? 

What  change  should  be  received  from  a  five  dollar  bill  in  paying 
a  monthly  bill  for  30  qt.  of  milk  at  8^  a  quart,  and  5  jars  of  cream 
at  1 5ff  a  jar  ? 

What  is  the  cost  of  50  gal.  of  paint  at  66|ff  a  gallon,  and  4^  gal. 
of  varnish  at  $1.25  a  gallon? 

The  following  kind  of  problem  occurred  only  once : 

A  milk  dealer  received  in  one  month  257,395  lb.  of  milk,  for 
which  he  paid  i^  a  pound.  The  cost  of  shipping,  filtering,  pas- 
teurizing, bottling,  and  factory  and  ofl&ce  expense  amounted  to 
12^  per  gallon.  Milk  weighs  8.5  lb.  per  gallon,  and  sells  at  8f^  per 
quart.  How  much  did  the  dealer  make  or  lose  on  his  month's 
business  ? 

A  survey  of  "  The  Social  and  Business  Use  of  Arithmetic," 
by  Professor  G.  M.  Wilson  of  Iowa  State  College,^  deserves 
careful  study.  The  survey  is  based  on  the  actual  needs  of 
arithmetic  as  stated  by  individuals  in  various  callings.  Pro- 
fessor Wilson's  conclusions  throw  b'ght  on  the  problem  of 
the  evaluation  and  adaptation  of  subject-matter  in  arithmetic. 

1.  The  opinions  of  business  men  and  of  educators  that 
many  arithmetical  processes  consuming  much  time  could  be 
omitted  from  the  course  without  loss  is  borne  out  quite  fully 
by  this  survey  of  the  social  and  business  use  of  arithmetic. 
The  facts  go  further  than  the  opinions  and  are  a  safer  guide. 

2.  The  problems  solved  in  actual  life  are  brief  and  simple. 
They  chiefly  require  the  more  fundamental  and  more  easily 
mastered  processes. 

3.  In  actual  experience  few  problems  of  an  abstract  nature  are 

*  Sixteenth  Year  Book,  op.  cit. 


196  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtidge  It 

encountered.  The  problems  are  concrete  and  relate  to  busi- 
ness situations.  They  require  simple  reasoning  and  a  decision 
as  to  the  processes  to  be  employed. 

4.  The  study  justifies  careful  consideration  of  the  following 
question.  After  the  development  of  reasonable  speed  and 
accuracy  in  the  fundamentals  and  the  mastery  of  the  simple 
and  more  useful  arithmetical  processes,  should  the  arithmetic 
work  not  be  centered  largely  around  those  problems  which 
furnish  the  basis  for  much  business  information  ? 

5.  Another  question:  May  we  not  hope  through  the  use 
of  large  informational  problems  and  situations  in  the  upper 
grades,  to  receive  a  more  intelligent  application  of  arithmetic 
to  actual  life  situations,  i.e.  to  secure  the  use  of  more  arith- 
metic in  the  productive  work  of  the  kitchen,  in  intelligent 
buying,  in  proper  form  accounting,  in  intelligent  saving  and 
investing,  etc.? 

6.  Aside  from  the  work  implied  by  the  questions  raised  in 
4  and  5  above,  it  is  evident  that  the  necessary  work  in  arith- 
metic can  be  mastered  in  much  less  time  than  is  now  being 
devoted  to  it. 

A  recent  investigation  by  Dr.  Hollo  way  of  errors  in  arith- 
metic made  by  over  a  thousand  children  in  the  elementary 
school  indicates  the  relative  amount  of  stress  that  should  be 
laid  by  textbook  authors  and  teachers  on  the  various  items  in 
two  of  the  four  fundamentals.  Tables  IX  and  X  seem  to 
be  self-explanatory.^ 

Spelling.    An  examination  of  the  several  studies  which  have 

been  made  to  determine  the  minimal  essentials  in  spelling 

suggests  that  if  authors  of  textbooks  for  the  various  grades 

would  use  the  words  of  these  lists  in  all  of  the  texts  for  each 

*  School  and  Society,  Sept.  i,  191 7. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  TrtUh    197 


TABLE  DC 


Table  Showing  Order  op  Difficulty 
Errors  Made  by  1,065  Chxldren  in 


AS  Determined  by  Number  of 
Eac-h  of  the  Addition  Facts 


(Most  difficult) 

9+8 .  .  . 

9+7  .  .  . 

9+6 .  .  . 

8+7  .  .  . 

8+5 .  .  . 

8+6 .  .  . 

7+5  .  .  . 

9+4 .  .  . 

7+6 .  .  . 

9+5 .  .  . 

7+4 .  .  . 

9+3 .  .  . 

8+3 .  .  . 


No.  OF 
EftXORS 

95 
90 
82 
69 
68 
66 
56 
51 
SO 
49 
48 

43 
41 


8  +  8 37 

8  +  4 37 


7  +  3 
6  +  4 

6  +  5 
9  +  9 

5  +  3 

7  + 

2  + 
7  + 

6  + 

5  + 

6  + 

7  + 

6  +  2 
8+1 

3  +  1 


No.  ov 
Euots 

.  37 

•  34 
.  32 

•  29 
.  26 
.  24 
.  21 
.  20 
.  20 
.  20 

20 
.  20 
.  19 
.  19 
.     19 


4  +  3 

3  +  2 
6  + 

1  + 

4  + 
9  + 

5  + 

4  + 

5  + 
9  + 
8  + 

5  + 

2  + 

4  +  4 

3  +  3 


No.  ov 

EUOKS 

18 
17 
17 
17 
16 

IS 

15 

IS 

13 

13 

13 

9 

9 

8 

8 


grade  the  problem  of  spelling  would  be  partly  solved.  The 
list  given  in  the  appendix  is  now  being  tested  out  in  several 
schools,  and  so  far  reports  seem  to  indicate  that  there  will  be 
needed  little  alteration  in  the  listing  of  words  for  each  grade. 

Language  and  Grammar.  Several  studies  have  been  made 
with  the  object  of  ascertaining  the  nature  and  frequency  of 
errors  in  written  and  oral  language  work  in  the  elementary 
school.*  (i)  Superintendent  Thompson  of  Waukegan,  Illi- 
nois, found  that  the  most  frequent  errors  in  the  fifth  to  eighth 
grades  were  verbs,  omissions,  connectives,  incomplete  sen- 
tences, and  homonyms.  The  least  frequent  were  double 
negatives,  adjectives  for  adverbs,  inverted  constructions, 
articles,  and  redundancy. 

(2)  Meek  found  that  of  the  total  errors  reported  from  the 
»  Sixteenth  Year  Book,  Nat'I  Soc.  for  the  Study  of  Educ. 


198  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

eight  grades,  40.1  per  cent  are  verb  errors,  3.4  per  cent  are 
double    negatives,    mispronunciations   cause  20.4  per  cent, 


TABLE  X 

Table  Showing  Order  of  Difficulty  as  Determined  by  Number  of 
Errors  Made  by  1,215  Children  in  Each  of  the  Multiplication  Facts 


No.  at 

No.  or 

No.  oj 

(Most  difficult) 

Errors 

Errors 

Errors 

II  X  II     .     . 

.     735 

7X5.     .     .     .     181 

6x2.. 

.     50 

12  X  II     .     . 

.     .     655 

9X3 

.     169 

5x3.. 

.     .     46 

II  X  10     .     . 

.     638 

9X5 

.     168 

II  X  2    .     . 

.     46 

12  X  10     .     . 

.     .     542 

II  X8 

.     167 

I  XI    .     . 

.     41 

12  X    8     .     . 

.     .     460 

?>xz 

.     151 

9X2    .     . 

•     39 

9x7.. 

.     .    455 

II  X  6 

.     144 

10  X  3    .     . 

.     38 

12  X    7     .     . 

.     .     438 

6x5 

138 

7X2.. 

.     38 

8x7.. 

.     .     435 

11x7 

.     137 

5x5.. 

•     34 

12  X  12     .     . 

.     425 

8X5 

.     137 

4X2    .     . 

.     32 

9X8.. 

.     422 

6x4 

^ZZ 

10  X  4    .    . 

.     31 

12  X   9    .    . 

.     .     417 

II  X4 

■     131 

10  X  2    .     . 

.     31 

9x6.. 

.     390 

6  X6 

129 

II  X  I    .     . 

.    31 

8X8.. 

.     361 

II  X  5 

"3 

4X1     .     . 

.     31 

12  X    6     .     . 

.     361 

6X3 

102 

3X1.. 

.     28 

8x6.. 

.     .     342 

II  X  3 

99 

5X2.. 

.     26 

9X4.. 

.     292 

10  X  9 

.       94 

3X3    .     . 

.     25 

7X6.. 

.     285 

10  X  7 

86 

9X1     .     . 

.     22 

12  X    5    .    . 

.     271 

10  X  8 

85 

3X2.. 

.     21 

7X7.. 

.     268 

12  X  2 

81 

7X1.. 

.     21 

9X9.. 

.     263 

10  X  6 

79 

6x1    .     . 

.     21 

12  X    4     .     . 

.     250 

4  X4    . 

78 

12  X  I    .     . 

.     20 

10  X  10     .     . 

.     241 

4X3    . 

76 

5x1.. 

.     20 

8x4.. 

.     235 

7  X3    . 

71 

2X1.. 

.     20 

7x4.. 

.     192 

10  X  5 

58 

2X2.. 

.     18 

12  X    3     .     . 

.     183 

8x2    . 

S8 

8X1    .     . 

.     18 

II  X    9     .     . 

.     181 

5X4    . 

55 

10  X  I    .     . 

.     12 

the  misuse  of  pronouns  17.2  per  cent,  adverb  errors  5.8 
per  cent,  and  12.9  per  cent  are  colloquialisms.  Sixty  per  cent 
of  the  errors  are  due  to  misuse  of  verbs  and  mispronuncia- 
tions. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  TrtUh    199 

(3)  The  Kansas  City  study  made  by  Betz  and  Marshall 
shows  that  of  all  errors  in  written  composition  of  the  third 
grade  pupils,  55  per  cent  are  in  punctuation  (capitals  22  per 
cent),  17  per  cent  in  language,  28  per  cent  in  grammar  (verbs 
13  per  cent). 

(4)  A  comprehensive  study  of  oral  errors  among  1378  Cin- 
cinnati children  of  the  elementary  school  third  to  eighth 
grades  inclusive  was  made  by  Isabel  Sears  and  Amelia  Diebel. 
Of  all  the  errors  49.9  per  cent  are  wrong  verb;  13.5,  pro- 
noims;  1 1.6,  negatives;  9.7,  redundance;  8.0,  mispronimcia- 
tions;  3.5,  prepositions;  ;^.^j  adjectives  and  adverbs;  .2  per 
cent,  ambiguous  expressions.  There  is  close  agreement  here 
with  the  Illinois  and  Boise  studies  as  to*  the  frequency  of  the 
verb  errors. 

(5)  Wrong  sentence  structure  occupies  the  head  of  a  list 
of  errors  found  by  Edgar  D.  Randolph  in  the  grades  of  the 
Speyer  School  in  New  York  City.  In  the  order  of  frequency 
the  other  errors  are  due  to  pronouns,  verbs,  adjectives  for  ad- 
verbs, connectives  (other),  prepositions. 

(6)  Other  studies  indicate  that  the  frequency  of  errors  in 
the  use  of  verbs  is  much  higher  than  other  errors,  and  in 
some  cases  higher  than  all  the  other  errors  combined.  The 
evaluation  of  subject-matter  in  textbooks  dealing  with  lan- 
guage and  grammar  in  the  grades  would  therefore  properly 
stress  this  unit  of  instruction  much  more  strongly  than  other 
units.     Motivated  drill  is  here  all-important. 

Textbooks  based  on  the  course  outlined  in  University  of 

Missouri  ^  would  prove  efifective  in  removing  or  preventing 

the  proportion  of  errors  listed  in  the  foregoing  studies.    Very 

evidently  the  books  that  were  used  in  the  grades  studied 

^  Education  Bulletin  No.  9,  by  W.  W.  Charters  and  Edith  Miller. 


200  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

in  the  investigation  referred  to  failed  to  accomplish  the 
most  needful  development  in  the  handling  of  everyday 
English. 

High  School  Subjects.  Few  published  studies  have  been 
made  of  evaluated  subject-matter  in  high  school  courses. 
The  problem  of  economy  of  time  is  just  as  acute  here  as  in 
the  elementary  school,  possibly  greater,  for  there  has  been  a 
rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  courses,  many  of  which  are 
still  inadequately  organized.  The  following  studies  are 
pioneers  in  their  respective  fields,  and  indicate  the  kind  of 
investigation  that  must  be  made  if  high  school  subjects  are 
to  be  properly  evaluated  in  the  textbooks. 

Algebra.  It  is  quite  generally  assumed  in  algebra  texts 
that  inasmuch  as  algebra  is  really  simplified  arithmetic  it  is 
primarily  concerned  with  the  four  fundamental  operations  of 
arithmetic.  Monroe  ^  suggests  that  besides  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division,  algebra  makes  special 
use  of  the  equation.  Simple  equations  are  most  common  to 
elementary  algebra.  In  these  simple  equations  fractions  with 
numerical  denominations  are  much  more  frequent  than  frac- 
tional equations  with  an  unknown  quantity  in  the  denomi- 
nators. Practical  need,  therefore,  requires  that  the  first  group 
of  fundamental  operations  of  elementary  algebra  deal  with 
this  type  of  simple  equations.  Quadratic  and  simultaneous 
equations  form  later  groups  of  study. 

Monroe  finds  upon  analysis  that  the  operations  used  in 
solving  a  simple  equation  are:  (i)  clearing  the  equation  of 
fractions,  (2)  transposing  terms,  (3)  collecting  terms,  and 
(4)  finding  the  value  of  x.     Clearing  an  equation  of  this  group 

1 "  An  experiment  in  the  Organization  and  Teaching  of  First  Year  Algebra," 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  Vol.  12,  pp.  125-131. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    201 

involves  the  multiplication  of  a  binomial  by  an  integer, 
and  at  times  the  multiplication  of  a  binomial  by  a  binomial. 
Collecting  terms  is  simple  addition  and  subtraction.  Find- 
ing a;  is  a  form  of  division. 

Textbook  authors  emphasize  certain  operations  that 
they  regard  fundamental  to  the  understanding  of  the  sub- 
ject of  algebra.  These  are :  removal  of  parentheses,  com- 
bining terms,  subtraction,  evaluation,  special  products,  fac- 
toring, exponents,  clearing  of  fractions  and  fractional  equa- 
tions, quadratic  equations,  graphing  of  equations,  solution  of 
"  practical  '*  formulas  and  simultaneous  equations.  Rugg 
found  ^  that  in  seven  tests  the  majority  of  errors  made  by 
several  hundred  pupils  consisted  of  wrong  use  of  signs  and 
mistakes  in  arithmetic.  His  insistence  upon  the  need  of 
drill  in  these  operations  in  first  year  algebra  suggests  that 
provision  for  such  drill  be  provided  in  textbooks.  It  is  per- 
haps needless  to  add  that  such  drill  exercises  should  be  ade- 
quately motivated  both  by  means  of  the  nature  of  drill  itself, 
and  by  the  illustration  of  how  important  such  automatic  skill 
is  in  the  understanding  of  more  advanced  work  in  algebra. 

Crathome  has  defined  the  utilities  of  algebra  as  four- 
fold :  (i)  vocational  utility  or  the  direct  use  of  algebra  in 
the  vocations,  trades,  and  in  reading  trade  journals;  (2) 
avocational  utility  or  the  direct  use  in  the  leisure  of  the  or- 
dinary educated  man,  in  his  everyday  life  and  reading;  (3) 
potential  utility  or  the  indirect  use  in  furnishing  a  necessary 
foundation  for  a  profession;  and  (4)  lingual  utility  or  the 
usefulness  in  giving  exercises  in  clear-cut  English  expressions. 

The  most  valuable  topic  in  algebra  he  believes  is  the  use  of 

* "  The  Experimental  Determination  of  Standards  in  First-year  Algebra,** 
School  Review,  Jan.,  1916. 


202  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jttdge  It 

letters  for  numbers,  including  the  evaluation  of  formulas, 
this  topic  finding  place  under  each  of  the  utiUties  considered. 
These  are  as  follows : 

Algebraic  operations  have  considerable  vocational,  avoca- 
tional,  great  potential,  and  much  lingual  value. 

Linear  equations  have  great  vocational  and  potential 
utilities. 

Proportion  and  variation  are  valuable  in  all  four  fields. 

Graphical  representation  and  the  function  have  little  lin- 
gual value. 

Radicals  have  considerable  value  potentially. 

Quadratics  have  considerable  value  potentially. 

Exponents  have  considerable  value  potentially. 

Logarithms  are  valuable  for  vocational  and  potential 
utilities. 

Complex  numbers  have  only  considerable  potential  value. 

Texts.  An  attractive  arrangement  for  drill  work  on  these 
topics  is  provided  by  Collins's  Practical  Algebra,  First  Year 
Course,  There  is  an  abundance  of  clear  explanations,  model 
solutions,  and  practice  material  so  that  the  pupil  under  the 
direction  of  an  alert  teacher  has  a  maximum  opportunity  to 
fix  these  algebraic  habits. 

Two  texts  that  aim  to  establish  the  pupil  in  the  funda- 
mentals in  a  manner  that  cannot  fail  to  excite  interest  are  those 
by  Cajori  and  Odell  (a  two-year  course),  and  a  one- volume 
text  by  Schultze.  Throughout  the  Cajori-Odell  text  arith- 
metic and  algebra  are  closely  connected.  The  authors  avoid 
complicated  proofs  and  start  with  certain  definite  assumptions 
of  the  laws  of  signs  in  subtraction  and  multiplication.  Simple 
fractions  and  easy  radicals  are  introduced  early,  but  not  at 
the  expense  of  comprehensive  drill  in  the  four  fundamentals. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    203 

The  books  abound  with  illustrations.  Problems  peculiar 
to  physics  have  been  purposely  minimized,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  first  year  pupils  should  not  be  expected  to  handle 
readily  such  abstract  concepts  of  mechanics  in  the  first  year. 
But  problems  from  the  realm  of  business  are  given  in  great 
abundance.  The  graphs  are  employed  both  for  the  visualiz- 
ing of  variables  in  equations  and  for  determined  practical 
results. 

The  Schultze  text  agrees  with  the  former  in  avoiding  ap- 
plications taken  from  physics,  and  for  the  same  reason. 
Schultze  is  quite  right  in  his  criticism  that  many  texts  in  al- 
gebra "  are  impressive  display  of  sham  applications."  There 
is  a  large  supply  of  drill  exercises  in  the  four  fundamentals. 
The  chapter  on  Linear  Equations  has  a  unique  arrangement, 
and  forms  one  of  the  chief  features  in  a  book  well  supplied  with 
excellent  qualities.  At  the  end  of  the  book  there  are  102 1 
review  exercises,  surely  a  supply  adequate  for  discriminating 
drill  and  for  individual  differences  in  rate  and  ability  of 
learning.  The  Hawkes-Tuby-Touton  text  is  another  illus- 
tration of  careful  and  simple  evaluation. 

The  emphasis  being  made  by  some  investigators  upon  what 
really  constitutes  the  basis  of  adequate  introduction  to  good 
progress  in  the  study  of  algebra  must  be  considered  by  authors 
within  this  field.  The  solution  of  equations  as  well  as  of  the 
four  fundamentals  rightly  forms  the  foundation  of  an  under- 
standing of  algebra,  and  not  without  thorough  drill  in  such  pro- 
cesses, with  material  skillfully  evaluated,  can  the  teacher  hope 
to  develop  not  merely  interest  in  the  subject  but  proficiency 
in  its  applications  as  well. 

Geometry.  Evaluated  subject-matter  in  geometry  has 
begun  to  appear  in  the  latest  texts.    The  Euclidean  system, 


204  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

of  course,  still  forms  the  framework  of  all  courses  in  geometry, 
and  as  a  system  of  logical  reasoning  it  doubtless  has  no  peer. 
But  perhaps  for  this  very  reason  it  is  one  of  the  most  difl&cult 
subjects  in  the  high  school,  and  the  textbook  of  geometry 
appears  as  one  of  the  least  interesting.  In  nearly  all  of  the 
recent  textbooks  one  finds  simple  preliminary  material  for 
the  purpose  of  making  clear  to  the  pupil  what  are  the  basic 
notions  of  geometry,  and  to  what  extent  logical  proof  is  abso- 
lutely indispensable  in  building  up  the  structure  of  geometric 
truth. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Geometry  ^  makes  the  quite 
obvious  point  that  such  preliminary  units  of  instruction  are 
quite  insufficient  in  the  matter  of  time.  The  pupil,  here  as  in 
algebra,  must  be  exposed  a  long  time  to  the  tools  of  his  study- 
ing. He  cannot  do  good  and  rapid  work  until  the  manipu- 
lation of  the  tools  is  automatic  and  unconscious.  The  re- 
port suggests  that  training  in  attention,  observation,  descrip- 
tion, experimentation,  and  informal  discussion  should  begin 
as  early  as  the  fourth  grade.  Where  this  is  impossible  the 
training  in  handling  of  tools  should  occupy  all  of  the  first 
high  school  year,  demonstrative  geometry  being  postponed 
to  the  second  year. 

A  Proposed  Course.  The  textbook  writer  will  be  interested 
in  the  proposed  course  as  outlined  by  the  Committee.^ 

(i)  The  course  aims  to  begin  in  the  elementary  school  and 
to  continue  in  the  high  school.  In  the  beginning  there  must 
be  provision  for  observation  with  the  cube,  cylinder,  cone, 
and  sphere  as  objects.  Along  with  this  observational  work 
the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  describe  correctly  the  funda- 

*  School  and  Society,  Jan.  13,  191 7,  pp.  53-59. 

*  E.  R.  Breslich,  chairman,  Ernest  B.  Lytle,  Orion  M.  Miller. 


Tlie  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth     205 

mental  forms  of  the  plane  and  space  as  viewed  on  models 
and  objects  around  him.  By  this  means  he  learns  to  image 
these  forms  correctly.  He  begins  to  conceiye  and  systematize 
space  magnitudes.  Inspection  of  the  boundary  of  surfaces 
leads  to  the  explanation  of  the  simplest  geometric  figures. 
Through  the  study  of  pyramids  and  prisms  he  learns  to 
classify  triangles  and  quadrilaterals  and  the  main  positions  of 
lines  and  planes  in  space.  From  the  cylinder,  cone,  and 
sphere  he  obtains  the  circle.  An  important  correlation  be- 
tween observation  and  drawing  should  be  made.  Plane  and 
solid  geometry  must  go  hand  in  hand. 

After  a  study  of  several  models  and  instruments  the  follow- 
ing terms  should  be  made  known  to  the  pupil :  cube,  rectangle, 
square,  surface,  edge,  comer,  straight  line,  point,  prism, 
sphere,  circle,  center,  diameter,  radius,  distance,  right  angle, 
perpendicular,  straight  angle,  obh'que  angle,  right  triangle, 
obtuse  triangle,  parallel  lines  and  planes,  complements  and 
supplements. 

The  pupil  should  be  taught  the  meaning  of  the  following 
symbols :    = ,  > ,  < ,  ± ,  rt.  Z ,  and  st.  Z . 

The  formulas  that  give  surface  measurement  of  the  square, 
rectangle,  cube,  and  rectangular  prism  should  be  taught  as 
well  as  the  facts  that  A  +  B  +  C  =  180°  for  any  triangle  and 
A=:B  =  C  =  6o®  for  the  equilateral  triangle.  This  work  may 
be  given  in  the  sixth  grade  or  earlier.  It  represents  the  first 
stage  of  instruction  in  geometry.  The  manual  use  of  ruler, 
compasses,  and  protractor  has  a  prominent  place  in  these 
units  of  instruction. 

Following  this  series  of  lessons  the  pupil  is  trained  in  the 
use  of  such  geometric  concepts  as  symmetry,  congruence,  and 
similarity. 


2o6  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Symmetry  may  be  observed  almost  anywhere,  for  example, 
in  furniture  and  decoration.  The  plane  of  symmetry  is  il- 
lustrated on  various  objects,  e.g.  the  head.  From  this  the 
pupil  may  study  symmetry  in  the  plane  and  in  the  axis.  All 
of  this  information  is  gleaned  inductively,  for  scientific  terms 
obviously  can  have  no  real  meaning  for  the  pupil  at  this  stage 
of  development.  Following  this  kind  of  work  the  fimdamental 
constructions  are  introduced,  those  based  on  symmetry,  as 
the  bisection  of  an  angle  and  the  erection  of  perpendicular 
lines.  Logic  is  not  considered  formally  as  yet,  but  accuracy 
in  speech  and  construction  is  stressed.  The  S5nnmetry  of 
the  isosceles  and  equilateral  triangles,  the  drawing  of  the 
medians,  bisectors  of  angles  of  a  triangle,  etc.,  open  for  the 
pupil  opportunities  to  recognize  general  geometric  facts. 
The  pupils,  each  with  a  differently  shaped  triangle,  find  that 
the  bisectors  of  the  angles  of  a  triangle  are  concurrent.  This 
introduces  the  query  whether  it  is  possible  to  "  prove  "  that 
the  concurrence  of  those  lines  is  a  general  fact.  The  sym- 
metric properties  of  solids  (cube,  pyramid,  etc.)  are  studied. 
The  symmetry  of  the  circle  leads  to  the  problem  of  locating 
the  center  and  of  constructing  regular  inscribed  and  circvun- 
scribed  polygons. 

Following  this  study  of  solids  as  a  whole  the  processes  of 
analysis  and  synthesis  are  developed,  and  this  type  of  study- 
ing calls  for  close  observation  of  form  and  the  appUed  review 
of  what  has  already  been  learned.  There  will  now  be  actual 
measurement  in  and  about  the  school,  so  that  by  this  means 
the  pupil  may  obtain  figures  to  be  constructed  and  drawn  to 
scale.  Some  of  the  fundamental  problems  of  finding  inac- 
cessible distances  are  solved  by  this  method. 

In  this  work  models  made  of  wood,  cardboard,  or  wire  are 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    207 

used.  A  cube,  a  quadrangular  prism,  and  a  pyramid,  di- 
vided into  symmetric  parts  by  planes,  a  sphere  with  the 
equator  marked,  and  parallel  circles  and  meridians,  right 
and  oblique  pyramids,  prisms,  cones,  and  cylinders,  and 
the  five  regular  polyhedrons  are  the  principal  tools  of  the 
course. 

If  the  work  has  been  properly  developed  and  care  taken  to 
supervise  the  pupil  step  by  step,  it  will  be  right  to  expect  him 
to  know  at  this  point  the  following  : 

Measurement  and  graphing  of  line  segments ; 

Measurement  of  angles; 

Relations  between  the  angles  of  a  triangle,  interior  and  ex- 
terior ; 

Relations  between  adjacent  angles,  complementary  and  supple- 
mentary ; 

Relations  between  the  acute  angles  of  a  right  triangle ; 

Relations  between  the  angles  formed  by  parallel  lines  and  a 
transversal ; 

Problems  solved  by  scale  drawings ; 

The  fundamental  constructions,  and  construction  of  congruent 
figures ; 

Properties  of  chords,  tangents,  and  central  angles ;  of  the  isosceles 
and  equilateral  triangles. 

The  second  stage  of  this  course  concludes  with  the  correla- 
tion of  algebra  and  arithmetic.  Adding,  subtracting,  and 
multiplying  line-segments ;  measuring  lengths,  as  perimeters 
and  circles ;  finding  areas  and  volumes  —  are  means  of  such 
correlation.  Expressions  like  (a-ffi)^,  {a-\-h){a—h),  (a+6)', 
are  pictured  with  rectangles  and  cubes.  The  formula  S=ba 
is  developed  for  whole  numbers,  decimal  fractions,  and 
fractions.   Computation  of  areas  leads  to  square  root.     Here 


2o8  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

the  pupil  is  led  to  see  the  advantage  of  approximate  arith- 
metic, as  he  develops  judgment  as  to  the  limited  accuracy 
of  the  magnitudes  given  and  to  be  computed. 

This  second  stage  of  geometry  may  be  given  in  the  sixth 
or  seventh  grade. 

(2)  The  study  of  logical  geometry  is  not  taken  up  abruptly, 
but  by  intermediary  material.  Proof  of  geometric  facts  must 
precede  demonstration.  At  first  the  properties  of  figures  are 
studied  and  the  results  found  are  stated  as  theorems.  The 
truth  of  these  theorems  is  then  established  by  reason- 
ing. The  method  of  proof,  however,  is  always  informal. 
When  it  has  been  found  that  two  lines  perpendicular  to 
the  same  line  are  parallel,  the  pupil  will  reason  about  as 
follows : 

"  This  must  be  true.  For,  if  they  were  not  parallel  they 
would  meet  and  then  we  would  have  two  lines  from  a  point 
outside  of  a  given  line  perpendicular  to  the  given  line,  which 
is  impossible !  "  However,  the  conventional  form  of  proof, 
given,  to  prove,  proof,  might  be  used  in  some  instances  in 
which  the  class  can  appreciate  its  value. 

Geometry  at  this  stage  aims : 

1.  To  establish  geometric  facts,  either  by  studying  the  figure, 
or  as  a  consequence  of  other  known  facts. 

2.  To  help  the  pupil  to  pass  gradually  to  the  logical  method  of 
demonstrative  geometry. 

These  topics  in  the  transition  units  of  instruction  are : 

Congruence  of  triangles. 

Similarity  of  figures. 

The  properties  of  isosceles  and  equilateral  triangles. 

The  proofs  of  the  fundamental  constructions. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    209 

Tangents  and  regular  inscribed  and  circumscribed  polygons. 
The  theorem  of  Pythagoras. 

These  topics  are  considered  in  the  eighth  grade  or  in  the 
first  year  in  the  high  school.  About  half  the  time  usually 
given  to  mathematics,  it  is  recommended  by  the  Committee, 
should  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  geometry,  the  remainder 
being  spent  on  other  mathematical  subjects. 

(3)  Logical  geometry  has  now  been  reached.  The  pupil 
has  already  learned  to  understand  the  basic  concepts  of  geome- 
try. He  has  seen  the  need  of  logical  proof  and  its  advantages 
over  the  experimental  method.  Now  he  is  given  opportunity 
to  choose  between  the  various  methods  of  proof.  These 
methods  are  considered  throughout  the  course,  the  aim  being 
to  lead  the  pupil  to  see  that  there  is  usually  some  definite 
plan  that  he  may  follow.  He  is  not  left  to  chance.  Five 
kinds  of  proof  are  emphasized :  proof  by  superposition,  used 
mainly  in  proving  the  fundamental  theorems  of  a  chapter ; 
the  method  of  congruent  triangles ;  the  indirect  method ;  the 
method  of  analysis ;   the  algebraic  method. 

The  Committee  believes  that  the  traditional  arrangement  of 
subject-matter  into  books  has  no  special  advantage  but  rather 
distinct  disadvantages.  For  this  reason  they  suggest  the 
following  topics  for  brief  chapters. 

1.  Quadrilaterals.  Parallelograms,  angles  formed  by  parallel 
lines  and  a  transversal,  the  trapezoid,  the  kite. 

2.  Proportional  line  segments.  Parallel  lines  cut  by  trans- 
versals, constructions  leading  to  proportional  segments,  processes 
which  applied  to  proportions  give  proportions. 

3.  Similar  polygons  and  triangles. 

4.  The  theorem  of  Pythagoras  and  its  generalizations. 


2IO  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

5.  The  circle.  Diameters,  chords  and  arcs,  parallel  secants, 
tangent  circles. 

6.  Measurement  of  angles  by  arcs  of  the  circle.  Inscribed 
angles,  angles  formed  by  secants,  tangents,  and  chords. 

7.  Proportional  Hne  segments  in  circles. 

8.  Inequalities.  In  the  preceding  chapters  various  theorems 
on  inequalities  have  been  proved.  This  chapter  is  an  extension 
and  full  treatment  of  the  subject. 

9.  Loci  and  concurrent  lines.  Before  this  several  locus 
theorems  have  been  proved.  This  chapter  is  a  summary  and 
extension  of  the  subject.  The  same  is  true  for  the  next  three 
topics. 

10.  Regular  polygons  inscribed  in,  and  circumscribed  about, 
the  circle.    Length  of  the  circle. 

11.  Area  of  the  triangle. 

12.  Area  of  the  polygon  and  circle 

Trigonometry.  Attention  is  called  by  the  Committee  to 
the  fact  that  most  textbooks  on  geometry  now  contain  the 
fundamentals  of  trigonometry,  consisting  mainly  of  the  defi- 
nitions of  the  trigonometric  ratios,  finding  the  approximate 
values  of  the  ratios  for  given  angles,  the  use  of  tables  of  the 
natural  functions,  and  applications  to  the  solution  of  the  right 
triangles.  This  work  is  given  usually  together  with  ratio, 
proportion,  and  similar  triangles.  After  this  as  a  rule  no  fur- 
ther use  is  made  of  trigonometry.  For  this  reason  the  pupil 
soon  forgets  this  brief  study  of  the  topic  and  it  appears  prac- 
tically as  a  wholly  new  subject  when  he  later  takes  it  up  as 
a  separate  course.  Trigonometry  should  be  used  more  fre- 
quently in  geometry,  many  of  the  theorems  being  well  adapted 
to  proof  by  both  methods. 

Solid  Geometry  should  not  be  isolated  from  plane  geometry. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    211 

In  the  courses  outlined  the  pupil  has  been  trained  in  space 
perception.  While  studying  plane  geometry  he  should  also 
become  familiar  with  solid  geometry.  Many  theorems  in 
the  latter  are  related  to  corresponding  theorems  in  the  former. 
If  they  are  proved  in  plane  geometry,  the  pupil  will  have 
excellent  exercise  in  both  two  and  three  dimensional  thinking. 
Solid  geometry  should  include  the  theorems  on  diedral  angles, 
perpendicular  and  parallel  planes,  theorems  on  lines  and 
planes  in  space,  some  study  of  the  sphere,  and  circles  on  the 
surface  of  the  sphere.  This  leaves  for  later  study  the  areas 
of  surfaces,  volumes  of  solids,  and  polyhedral  angles  in 
connection  with  spherical  polygons. 

Limits.  There  should  be  consideration  of  incommensurable 
lines.  The  notion  of  the  limit  as  a  constant  approached  by  a 
sequence  of  numbers  should  be  developed  but  no  topical  treat- 
ment of  limit  need  be  given. 

Texts.  The  foregoing  course  offers  many  valuable  sugges- 
tions and  is  especially  valuable  for  its  plan  to  introduce  the 
study  of  geometry  early  and  in  a  manner  that  conforms  to 
the  stages  of  the  pupil's  mental  development.  Some  of  the 
features  of  this  course  are  noticeable  in  the  more  recent  texts 
in  geometry.  The  Ford  and  Ammerman  Plane  and  Solid 
Geometry  ^  introduces  trigonometrical  ratios  in  the  treatment 
of  plane  geometry.  This  text  is  distinguished  also  by  many 
problems  and  illustrations  in  applied  design.  In  the  section 
on  solid  geometry  there  are  unusually  striking  illustrations. 
The  text  on  Plane  Geometry  by  Palmer  and  Taylor  offers  many 
practical  applications.  Young  and  Schwartz's  Plane  Geome- 
7>7^  emphasizes  the  "logical  structure'*  plan  and  synmietry. 
Its  two-color  printing  in  the  figures  is  a  unique  feature.  In 
*  Macmilkn,  1913.  '  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 


212  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

the  Plane  Geometry  by  Betz  and  Webb  there  is  a  long  pre- 
liminary course  preceding  the  demonstrational  geometry. 
Robbins's  New  Plane  Geometry'^  follows  the  traditional  organi- 
zation with  strong  emphasis  on  demonstrational  methods. 
-Constructive  Geometry  by  E.  R.  Hedrick  ^  is  a  rather  unusual 
geometric  notebook,  modeled  after  those  long  used  in  England. 
The  provision  for  many  blank  pages  enables  the  pupil  to  make 
his  drawings  and  to  work  his  problems  in  this  notebook. 
From  the  title  of  the  book  one  expects  to  find  a  large  number 
of  practical  problems.  These  are  abundant  and  suggest  many 
ways  in  which  geometry  can  be  coordinated  with  manual 
training  courses. 

General  Mathematics.  Within  the  past  ten  years  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  various  branches  of  mathematics  as  really 
so  many  phases  of  a  general  subject  has  led  many  teachers  to 
organize  general  courses  in  which  algebra,  geometry,  and 
trigonometry  are  presented  as  aids  to  one  another.  Correla- 
tions, as  we  have  seen,  are  common  also  between  practical, 
everyday  problems  and  between  physics,  manual  training, 
and  engineering.  This  correlation  is  not  an  innovation  of 
twentieth-century  teachers.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years 
such  combination  treatment  has  been  in  vogue  in  European 
schools.  One  may  trace  this  conception  of  general  mathematics 
back  a  thousand  years  and  more  to  the  great  Arabic  math- 
ematician, Mohammed  ibsi  Irusa  al-Khowarizmi  (even  his 
name  suggests  correlations  of  some  sort),  who  wrote  the  first 
systematic  treatise  on  algebra  and  included  the  well-known 
geometrical  solutions  of  the  quadratic  and  the  application  of 
algebra  to  a  geometrical  problem. 

This  ancient  scheme  has  been  reviewed  in  several  note- 
1  American  Book  Company,  1915.  '  Macmillan,  1916. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Meafts  of  Interpreting  Truth    213 

worthy  texts,  among  which  the  three  volumes  by  E.  R.  Bres- 
lich  are  the  most  pretentious  and  the  best  evaluated.  A 
series  entitled  Correlated  Mathematics  Jar  Secondary  Schools 
by  Lang  and  Breuke  *  is  a  less  effective  and  hardly  an  original 
application  of  the  principles  of  a  general  course.  Shorts 
and  Elson's  Secondary  School  Mathematics  ^  introduces  dem- 
onstrational  geometry  into  the  first  year's  work  and  accept- 
ably unifies  the  work  of  the  second  year. 

S.  G.  Rich  of  Amanzintoti  Institute,  Natal,  South  Africa, 
reports  an  ingenious  plan  of  evaluation  and  adaptation  that 
has  succeeded  admirably  with  his  Zulu  students.  These  stu- 
dents come  from  the  eighth  grade.  They  have  been  taught 
geometry  and  algebra  in  separate  courses,  not  going  beyond 
quadratics  and  circles.  They  are  given  extensive  revision 
courses  in  arithmetic,  designed  to  train  the  student  to  teach 
this  subject.  At  the  Institute  a  course  in  general  mathematics 
is  given  under  the  name  ^*  arithmetic."  In  connection  with 
the  revision  of  mensuration  the  principal  elementary  theorems 
of  plane  geometry  are  used,  only  those  being  selected  which 
are  most  broadening  to  the  student's  mathematical  ideas. 
The  instructor  in  mathematics  applies  the  single  linear  equa- 
tion as  a  means  of  extending  the  range  of  arithmetical  power. 
Enough  algebra  is  taught  to  give  facility  in  such  work.  Such 
elementary  parts  as  are  of  traditional  value  or  merely  intro- 
ductory to  work  beyond  the  possible  needs  of  the  students  are 
omitted.  Rich  believes  that  time  spent  in  learning  complex 
factorizations,  "  removal  of  brackets,"  involution,  theory  of 
indices  is  wasted  upon  the  large  number  of  pupils  who  do  not 
plan  to  attend  college.  Skill  in  handling  the  tools  of  linear 
equations  should  be  more  and  more  emphasized.  He  applies 
>  Century  Company.  «  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


214  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtcdge  It 

this  method  successfully  to  simple  interest  problems  with  his 
senior  Zulu  normal  students.  In  geometry,  theorems  and 
facts  are  introduced  as  means  to  solve  actual  problems  from 
life,  ability  to  demonstrate  that "  triangles  with  three  mutually 
equal  angles  are  similar  "  is  less  important  than  developing 
ability  to  utilize  Pythagoras'  theorem. 

Zoology.  The  variety  of  viewpoint  among  textbook  authors 
in  the  field  is  strikingly  shown  in  the  accompanying  tables 
compiled  by  E.  R.  Downing.  Notice,  for  example,  that  the 
wide  variation  in  the  amount  of  space  devoted  to  habits  of 
animals  ranges  from  0.6%  in  Bigelow's  Applied  Biology  (191 1) 
to  45.3%  inTenney's  Natural  History  (1866).  Confining  the 
comparison  to  texts  published  recently,  Bigelow's  0.6%  is  one 
extreme  and  Daugherty's  Principles  of  Economic  Zoology 
with  30.7%  and  Hegner's  Practical  Zoology  with  26.3%  the 
other  extreme. 

In  discussing  the  trend  in  texts  in  Zoology,  Downing  sug- 
gests that  too  much  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  the  study  of 
morphology  from  the  evolutionary  point  of  view.  The  danger 
here  is  similar  to  that  throughout  the  entire  field  of  subject- 
matter  in  education ;  namely,  that  of  devotees  exalting  each 
his  own  subject  and  claiming  exceptional  educational  value 
for  its  contents.  The  high  school  teacher  of  zoology,  impreg- 
nated with  university  ideals  and  university  conceptions  of 
mental  development,  simply  transfers  this  more  mature 
study  of  zoology  to  the  high  school,  where  the  pupil  is  not 
ready  for  a  painstaking  morphological  analysis.  Consequently 
many  pupils  are  dropping  away,  the  enrollment  in  these  courses 
is  decreasing.  Doubtless  the  strong  movement  toward  gen- 
eral science  is  due  to  this  overemphasis  on  detail  in  high 
school  science. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    215 

Criteria  Jar  Science  Texts.  Important  criteria  for  the  se- 
lection of  material  in  textbooks  have  been  suggested  by  Twiss.* 
The  subject-matter  must  be : 

1.  capable  of  being  made  simple  enough  to  be  clearly 
comprehended  by  the  pupil; 

2.  knowledge  that  will  help  in  the  accomplishment  of 
some  worthy  purpose; 

3.  frequently  associated  with  the  situations  in  which  it  is 
likely  to  be  needed,  or  some  part  of  them,  or  something 
like  them,  so  that  it  can  be  recalled  when  the  need  for  it  occurs. 

Many  textbooks  in  science,  and  in  other  subjects  as  well, 
have  simply  restated  what  earlier  texts  contain,  and  in  a  style 
even  less  attractive  in  some  instances.  Science  is  systematic 
observation  of  phenomena  in  various  fields  of  life.  The  text- 
book simply  records  what  others  have  seen.  The  pupil  must 
see  many  of  these  phenomena  and  specimens  for  himself; 
indeed  it  is  better  that  he  see  them  first  and  then  read  about 
them  and  then  observe  them  again  under  scientific  direction. 

General  Science  Texts.  An  interesting  and  illuminating 
study  of  the  Quantitative  Analysis  of  General  Science  by  H.  A. 
Webb  ^  is  based  on  the  examination  of  ten  texts,  all  of  them 
published  since  1905.  In  these  ten  texts  there  were  in  all 
3610  pages  of  instruction,  all  tables  of  contents,  introductions, 
appendices,  and  indices  being  excluded.  "  Every  topic  to 
which  as  much  as  one  page  was  devoted  was  entered  in  a  card 
index,  each  text  being  credited  with  the  proper  number  of 
pages  for  each  subject.  There  were  in  all  84  such  topics  of 
minor  rank."  The  accompanying  chart  indicates  the  distribu- 
tion of  total  pages  of  major  subjects.    The  greatest  amount 

^Science  Teaching.    Macmillan,  191 7,  p.  9a 
*  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  June,  191 7. 


1 6      Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 


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History  of  zoology    .     . 

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Comparative  physiology 
Sex 

"1 

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Geographical  distribution 
Classification    .... 

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Paleozoology    .... 
Archseologj'  and  ethnology 

Evolution 

Miscellanous  zoology     . 
Human  physiology    .     . 

Plants 

Physical  geography  and  m 

The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    217 


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2i8  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jiidge  It 

of  space  is  devoted  to  physics,  1041  pages  or  28.9%.  Of  these 
pages  206  deal  with  mechanical  energy,  143  with  heat,  123  with 
electricity,  115  with  light,  49  with  magnetism. 

Generous  provision  has  been  made  for  the  high  school  girl, 
there  being  194  pages  (or  5.4%)  devoted  to  household  arts 


Pagres  100       200        800       400       600        600        700        SOO       900       1000 


186 


ttStroDouy 
£extU< 

trnoUBBlfied  T.b% 


"1^ 


PhjaiM 
28.9^ 


Phjtiology 
18.6jr 


Physiognphjr 
13.4sg 


Planti 
9.9^ 


Meteorology 
8.1^ 


■t.i% 


Foods  a.8«< 


Figure  IV 


and  137  pages  (or  3.8%)  devoted  to  food.  The  large  differ- 
ence in  amount  of  space  given  to  animal  life  and  to  plant  life 
may  be  explained  partly  by  the  fact  that  only  3  pages  are 
devoted  to  animal  reproduction  and  40  pages  to  plant  repro- 
duction, a  choice  of  emphasis  that  has  obvious  explanation. 
Only  five  of  the  texts  treat  of  astronomy. 
The  wide  range  of  emphasis  by  various  authors  of  general 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    219 


TABLE  XII 
DisTHiBunoN  OP  Subject-Matter  in  General  Science  Texts 


Name  of  Text 

Hessler 

Clark 

Coulter 

Barber 

Elhuff 

Snyder 

Cald- 
weD- 
Eikcn- 

Total  number  of  pages    .     . 

4S8 

352 

284 

584 

413 

454 

302 

1.  Elem.  Mechanics  (solids) 
and  Measurement     .     . 

50 
10.9% 

'l..% 

13 

4.5% 

66 

11.3% 

42 
10.2% 

1.1% 

21 
7.0% 

2.  Water-Chemistry     etc., 
Mechanics  of  Liquids    . 

30 
6.5% 

40 
11.2% 

15.0% 

50 

8.5% 

28 
6.9% 

0.9% 

11.0% 

3.  Air-Composition,      Me- 
chanics of  Gases  .     .     . 

20 
4.4% 

22 
6.2% 

21 

7.5% 

0.9% 

40 

9.8% 

'5    ^ 

3.3% 

4°   ^ 
13.2% 

4.  Heat-Combustion 

Theory  of  Heating  Sys- 
tems, etc 

23 

5.1% 

?:.% 

44 
15.6% 

112 
19.1% 

54    ^ 
13.2% 

13 
2.8% 

16 
5.2% 

5.  Everyday        Chemistry 
(not  imder  other  heads) 

40 
8.8% 

9.0% 

27 
6.5% 

6.  Light-Theory  and  Rela- 
tion to  Life 

5.0% 

49 
14.1% 

5.3% 

62 
10.8% 

5.0% 

1.7% 

1.0% 

7.  Sound  Theory,  and  Rela- 
tions    

1.1% 

39 
11.0% 

lO 

2.3% 

0.6% 

8.  Magnetism    and    Elec- 
tricity       

^4      r» 
5-1% 

46 
13.4% 

34 
8.2% 

'3.8% 

9.  Physiology    and    Food 

86 
18.8% 

9 

2.6% 

10 
3.8% 

35 
6.0% 

21 
5.0% 

3.4% 

29 
9.6% 

10.  Hygiene    and     Sanita- 
tion      

38 
8.3% 

'U% 

80 
13.6% 

26 
6.4% 

29 
9.6% 

11.  Weather  and  Climate    . 

5-2% 

22 
7.1% 

"5    _ 
21.4% 



ft..% 

9.0% 

12,  Physiography  and  Soils 

1..% 

47 
16.6% 

'5      r» 
2.5% 

7.1% 

lt.6% 

iL% 

13.  Plants,          Elementary 
Botany,  Agriculture  .     . 

29 

6.3% 

1.3% 

9.5% 

3^      «r 
5.9% 

t,% 

9.9% 

16 
5.2% 

14.  Animab  —  Elementary 
Zottlogy 

25 

5.6% 

14 
5.0% 

32 

5.2% 

20 
4.0% 

32 

10.8% 

15.  Astronomy      or      Star 
Study      

3.0% 

6 
1.6% 

5.4% 

16.  Introductory  and  Mis- 
cellaneous     

16 

3.8% 

3.9% 

20 
7.0% 

8 
1.8% 

2.2% 

Note.  —  Owing  to  the  obvious  difficulty  of  analyzing  and  distributing  such  assorted 
material,  the  above  figures  do  not  represent  infallible  values,  but  do  give  an  acoirate 
relative  idea  of  emphasis. 

In  each  entry  the  uiM>er  figure  is  the  total  number  of  pages  devoted  to  that  topic, 
the  lower  the  per  cent  of  the  total  space  of  the  text. 


220  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jttdge  It 

science  texts  may  be  seen  in  more  detail  in  Table  XII.  Four  of 
the  texts  are  fairly  well  agreed  on  the  amount  of  space  given  to 
mechanics  (solids)  and  measurements.  There  are  wide  vari- 
ations among  the  seven  texts  in  their  treatment  of  heat- 
combustion,  light,  sound,  physiography.  (Snyder  spends 
more  than  half  of  his  books,  51.6%  or  234  pages,  on  physi- 
ography and  soils.)  Barber,  Elhuff ,  Caldwell,  and  Eikenberry 
omit  sound  and  magnetism.  Coulter  and  Snyder  fail  to  dis- 
cuss hygiene  and  sanitation  (Barber  gives  80  pages  or  13.6% 
to  illustrate  topic) ;  Clark  and  Elhuff  ignore  climate  and 
weather,  but  Barber  gives  125  pages  (21.4%)  to  this  subject. 
Only  three  of  the  books  discuss  astronomy,  Snyder  giving  the 
most  space  to  this  subject.  Webb's  study  shows  that  much 
attention  has  been  given  to  illustrations,  especially  to  photo- 
graphs. In  this  respect,  however,  the  general  science  books  are 
not  superior  to  texts  in  special  science,  for  throughout  modern 
textbook  making  the  artistic  and  the  photographic  features 
are  strongly  emphasized. 

The  accompanying  Table  XII  indicates  the  distribution  of 
emphasis  in  seven  current  texts  in  general  science. 

History.  The  accompanying  tables  indicate  that  there  is 
wide  diversity  of  judgment  regarding  the  relative  importance 
of  material  in  this  subject.  An  analysis  of  six  recent  history 
texts  in  medieval  and  modern  history  was  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  the  apportionment  of  space  to  various  periods 
and  topics.  The  period  considered  is  from  the  Teutonic  in- 
vasions to  the  present.  The  West  and  the  Harding  texts  treat 
of  the  times  before  Charlemagne  only  as  a  summary  and  review, 
while  the  Ashley  text  stops  with  the  seventeenth  century.^ 

1  Ashley  has  covered  the  i)eriod  since  the  seventeenth  century  in  his  Modem 
European  Civilization. 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    221 

The  main  figures  in  the  tables  denote  the  number  of  pages 
in  the  text  devoted  to  the  period  or  the  topic.  The  smaller 
figures  in  each  square  denote  per  cents.  In  all  cases  the 
base  for  percentage  is  the  number  of  pages  in  the  text  deal- 
ing with  the  period  in  question,  400  to  191 7,  those  pages  of  the 
text  relating  to  earlier  times  not  being  counted.  While  great 
care  has  been  taken  to  make  the  estimates  accurate  the  figures 
are  only  approximate,  owing  to  the  commingling  of  topics  and 
periods,  and  the  different  modes  of  treatment  by  the  different 
authors. 

The  texts  studied  and  compared  are  as  follows : 

Harding^s  New  Medieval  and  Modern  History,  indicated  by 
H. 

Robinson  and  Beard's  Outlines  of  European  History,  2 
vols.,  R  &  B. 

Robinson's  Medieval  and  Modem  Times,  R. 

West's  Modern  World,  W. 

Myers's  Medieval  and  Modern  History  (revised),  M. 

Ashley's  Early  European  Civilization,  A. 

A  study  of  the  tables  reveals  some  interesting  conditions. 
Four  of  the  texts  agree  quite  closely  in  the  amount  of  space 
devoted  to  the  Dark  Ages.  There  is  striking  uniformity  of 
amount  of  space  given  to  the  Middle  Ages,  Myers  being  an 
exception.  But  within  this  period  there  is  wide  variation  in 
the  treatment  of  France  and  in  the  discussions  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  and  of  Mohammedan  civilization.  There  is  con- 
siderable diversity  in  the  amount  of  space  given  to  the  Refor- 
mation and  the  Religious  wars.  While  there  is  a  fairly  close 
agreement  regarding  the  space  devoted  to  modem  times, 
with  one  exception,  there  is  much  variation  in  the  amount  of 
space  given  to  the  period  preceding  181 5.    The  greatest  di- 


y^ 


222  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtidge  It 

versity  is  noticeable  in  the  discussion  on  Europe  since  1878. 
In  most  of  the  books  practically  half  of  the  space  is  used  for 
the  medieval  period.  About  one  fourth  of  the  space  is  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  the  last  one  hundred  years. 


TABLE  XIII 

Apportionment  of  Subject-Matter  in  Texts  on  Medieval  and  Modern 

History 


Text 

H 

R&B 

R 

W 

M 

A 

Date  of  Publication 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1915 

1903 

1915 

Pages  on  period  400-1917   .    .     . 

700 

900 

720 

710 

700 

340 

Dark  Ages,  400-843 

27 
4 

64 

7  + 

64 
9 

=7i 

63 
9 

40 
11  + 

Barbarian  Invasions   .... 

2 

10 
1  + 

10 

15 
2 

14 
2 

16 
4i 

Church     .    .    ...    .    .    . 

I 

'ti 

1i 

9 
1  + 

18 

2h 

8 
2  + 

Mohammedans 

I 

II 

1  + 

II 

1  + 

7 
I 

15 
2 

4 
1  + 

Eastern  Empire 

I 

I 

i 

I 

4 

The  Franks  and  Charlemagne 

17 
2I 

% 

15 

2  + 

15 
2  + 

10 

10 
3- 

Middle  Ages,  843-1300  .... 

178 

25 

% 

175 

25 

180 
25 

125 
18 

192 

55 

Feudalism 

14 
2 

23 

2h 

% 

16 

2^ 

24 

6 
2- 

Medieval  Church 

18 
2^ 

18 
2 

18 

2| 

12 
If 

7 

I 

22 
7- 

Empire  and  Papacy    .... 

29 

4 

21 
2i 

21 

3 

26 

3l 

1^ 

8 

2  + 

The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth 

TABLE  Xai  — Continued 


223 


Text               

H 

R&B 

R 

W 

M 

A 

Date  of  Publication 

1913 

1912 

1914 

191S 

1903 

1915 

Pages  on  period  400-1917    .    .     . 

700 

900 

720 

710 

700 

340 

Middle  Ages  —  Continued 
Crusades 

26 
4- 

'U 

14 
2 

20 
3- 

27 
4- 

12 
3§ 

Eastern  Empire 

1 

2 

Mohammedan  Civilization 

3 

2 

i 

10 

20 
3- 

21 

2i 

21 
3 

1i 

'^i 

18 
5§ 

France  in  Middle  Ages    .    .    . 

14 

2 

i- 

2 

7 

I 

^ 

4 
1  + 

Medieval  Life 

'U 

' 

I 

15 

2 

22 

7- 

The  Manor ^  . 

h 

^ 

V 

7 

2 

Towns  and  Commerce     .    .    . 

10 

16 

16 

2i 

16 

2i 

18 

2i 

12 

3i 

Culture 

20 
3- 

% 

1i 

16 
2i 

II 

18* 
5i 

Renaissance  Period,  1300-1500    . 

lU 

43 

5- 

43 
6+ 

'h 

63 

9 

22i 

Culture  and  Learning      .    .    . 

21 

3 

26 
3- 

26 
3i 

14 
2- 

41 

IS 

4+ 

Hundred  Years'  War  ...     . 

16 

2\ 

8 
I  — 

8 
1  + 

8 
1  + 

6 

I- 

6 
2- 

Church  in  14th  and  isth  cents. 

10 
I* 

u 

*  No  treatment  of .  rchitccture  except  one  scant  page. 


224  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

TABLE  yilll  — Continued 


Text 

H 

R&B 

R 

W 

M 

A 

Date  of  Publication 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1915 

1903 

i'5 

Pages  on  period  400-1917        .     . 

700 

900 

720 

710 

Sv 

Renaissance  Period  —  Continued 
England 

?i 

I 

i 

I 

■j< 

^^^^^R( 

I 

France 

4 

S 

3 

3 

■f 

B 

*         ' 

Germany 

4 
I  — 

2 

Economic  Revolution  of  Renais. 

16 

5- 

The  Reformation  and  Religious 
Wars 

55 

8+ 

80 
9- 

80 
11  + 

1i 

103 
15 

39 
10+ 

Reformation  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland 

20 
3 

^k 

^li 

12 
If 

2f 

12 
4- 

Reformation  in  England  .     .     . 

10 

16 
2- 

16 

2\ 

12 
If 

28 

4 

8 
2^ 

Counter  Reformation .... 

4 

6 
f 

6 

I  — 

2 
f+ 

61 

I- 

4 
1  + 

ReUgious  Wars 

20 

3 

20 

2\ 

20 
3- 

13 

2— 

If 

33 

4- 

Social  and  Scientific  Changes   . 

6 
f 

6 

22 

7- 

Modem  Times,  1648-1917  .     .     . 

332 

47I 

570 
63  + 

380 
55 

384 
55 

337 
48+ 

1648-1815      

166 

24- 

265 
29+ 

195 
27 

153 
22  — 

215 
31 

Age  of  Louis  XIV    .... 

18 

2h 

■.V 

14 
2  — 

% 

17 

2h 

9 
3- 

The  Textbook  as  a  Means 

TABLE  XIII  — 


of  Interpreting  Truth    225 

CorUinued 


Text 

H 

R&B 

R 

w 

M 

A 

Date  of  Publication 

1913 

1912 

1914 

191S 

1903 

1915 

Pages  on  period  400-1917        .    . 

700 

900 

720 

710 

700 

340 

Modem  Times  —  Continued 

England  in  17th  century  .     . 

22 
3  + 

21 

2\ 

21 
3 

35 
5 

^:j 

4 
14+ 

Rise  of  Russia  and  Peter  Great 

6 
I  — 

\. 

6 
I  — 

V 

16 

2i 

Germany  and  Frederick  the 
Great 

IS 

2-f- 

8 
I  — 

8 
1  + 

7 

I 

II 
li 

Poland 

V 

\. 

\ 

I 

Life  and  Thought  in  i8th  cen- 
tury     

% 

30 
4+ 

England  in  1 8th  century  .     . 

14 

2 

18 
2 

18 

2\ 

12 

i! 

'U 

French  Revolution  .... 

41 

6- 

80 
9- 

'U 

^7^ 

1j 

Napoleonic  Era 

4i 

59 
6i 

'U 

21 
3 

44 
6| 

Industrial  Revolution  .     .     . 

16 

2\ 

22 

2\ 

15 

2  + 

27 
4- 

Europe  from  Vienna  to  Berlin 

76 
II 

I9i 

100 
14 

144 
20+ 

75 
10- 

Mettemich's  System  and  Re- 
action      

10 
li 

34 
4- 

1i 

21 
3 

8 
1  + 

France 

18 
2\ 

10 

li 

23 
3+ 

10 

Austria 

6 
I  — 

2 

V 

226  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 


TABLE  XIII  — Continued 


Text 

H 

R&B 

R 

W 

M 

A 

Date  of  Publication 

1913 

1912 

1914 

1915 

1903 

1915 

Pages  on  period  400-1917    .    .    . 

700 

900 

720 

710 

700 

340 

Europe  from  Vienna  to  Berlin 

—  Continued 
Italy 

12 

12 

10 

14 
2 

Germany 

12 

II 

13 
2  — 

13 
2  — 

Great  Britain 

18 
2^ 

45 

5 

If 

14 
2 

Europe  since  1878 

90 
13 

130 
14I 

ll 

I2i 

48 
7- 

England 

26 
3f 

8 

I 

France 

I 

8 

I 

Germany 

4 
1 

15 
2 

Russia 

% 

14 
2 

Balkans  and  Eastern  Question 

8 
1  + 

6 
f 

6 

I  — 

The  World  in  Revolution     .     . 

28 

4 

Science  and  Social  Organization 

14 
2 

The  Far  East 

II 

10 
1  + 

8 
1  + 

The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    227 


TABLE 

XIII- 

-  Continued 

Text 

H 

R&B 

R 

W 

M 

A    ; 

Date  of  Publication 

1913 

1912 

1914 

191S 

1903 

191S 

Pages  on  period  400-1917  .     .    . 

700 

900 

720 

710 

700 

340 

Europe  since  1878  —  Continued 
Expansion  of  Europe  in  19th 
century  

1i 

Refonn  in  the  20th  century 

'fi 

Medieval  and  Modern  to  1648 

370 
SO 

344 
38 

342 

47 

336 

47 

396 
56 

1648-181S         

167 
23 

26s 
29 

200 
28 

130 
18 

184 
26 

181S-1917         

200 
27 

308 
33 

180 
25 

246 
S3 

1 25 

18 

The  omission  of  estimates  for  certain  topics  in  some  of  the 
texts  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  subject  is  not  treated, 
but  that  its  treatment  is  so  involved  with  others  that  it  is 
impossible  to  make  accurate  statement  of  the  amount  of  space 
devoted  to  it. 

Summary.  It  has  been  noted  in  this  chapter  that  the  text- 
book is  a  means  of  interpreting  truth.  A  variety  of  inter- 
pretations is  inevitable.  Only  by  a  large  exchange  of  opinions 
resting  on  carefully  secured  data  can  man  hope  to  arrive  at 
results  that  will  benefit  the  race.  The  interpretation  will 
have  value  according  to  the  reputation,  training,  and  experi- 
ence of  the  author  and  those  who  have  cooperated  with  him. 
The  publishing  house  that  accepts  his  manuscript  sets  its  seal 


228  Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Jicdge  It 

of  approval  on  the  author's  work  and  becomes  responsible 
for  the  general  character  of  his  production.  It  is  therefore 
important  to  know  the  professional  standing  of  author  and 
something  of  the  character  of  the  publishing  house.  Because 
the  author  is  an  interpreter  it  is  necessary  to  know  some  of 
his  reasons  for  taking  the  stand  he  does  in  his  book.  These 
reasons  are  stated  in  the  preface  and  more  fundamentally  in 
the  introduction.  Both  of  these  should  be  studied,  preferably 
in  an  informal  reading  lesson,  the  teacher  explaining  the  more 
obscure  terms  and  meanings.  Critical  estimate  of  the  author's 
work  is  obtainable  in  expert  reviews.  These  can  be  used  to 
form  the  habit  of  critical  reading.  Open-mindedness  and 
judicial  acceptance  of  opinion  are  some  of  the  aims  that 
should  be  borne  in  mind  when  the  teacher  regards  the  text- 
book as  an  interpreter  of  truth. 

QUESTIONS  AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  textbook  authors 
of  your  books?  What  is  the  professional  occupation  of  these 
authors  ? 

2.  Why  is  the  preface  important? 

3.  How  would  you  present  introductory  matter  to  your  pupils? 

4.  By  what  means  can  reviews  be  used  to  develop  the  critical 
attitude  ? 

5.  Why  are  texts  necessarily  interpretations  of  truth? 

6.  What  studies  have  been  made  tending  toward  evaluation  of 
the  elementary  school  subjects  ?   of  the  high  school  subjects  ? 

7.  Should  everything  in  the  textbook  be  taught?    Why? 

8.  What  criteria  should  determine  the  selection  of  subject- 
matter,  in  the  writing  of  textbooks  ?  in  history,  in  general  science, 
and  in  mathematics? 

9.  What  is  the  chief  function  of  the  textbook  ? 


The  Textbook  as  a  Means  of  Interpreting  Truth    229 


REFERENCES 

Downing,  E.  R.  "  ZoSlogy  Textbooks  for  Secondary  Schools."  School 
Review,  1917. 

Monroe,  W.  S.  "Arithmetic"  in  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education  Year  Book,  1917.  "  An  Experiment  in  the  Organization 
and  Teaching  of  First -Year  Algebra."  School  Science  and  Mathe- 
matics, Vol.  12,  1 25-131. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Geometry.    School  and  Society,  January  13, 

191 7;    PP-  53-59- 
RuGG,  H.  O.    "The  Experimental  Determination   of    Standards    in 

First -Year  Algebra."     School  Review,  Jan.,  1916. 
School  and  Society,  Sept.  i,  1917,  pp.  265-268. 
Sixteenth  Year  Book  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education  1917, 

p.  144. 
Webb,   H.   A.    "Quantitative  Analysis  of  General  Science."    School 

Science  and  Mathematics,  June,  19 17. 
Wilson,  G.  M.    "Arithmetic"  in  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 

Education  Year  Book,  191 7. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  TEXTBOOK  AS  AN  INCENTIVE  OR  INSPIRATION 

If  the  pupil  has  been  carefully  trained  in  using  the  text- 
book as  a  tool ;  if  he  has  found  it  a  conscientious  guide  to  a 
wider  acquaintance  with  the  subject  by  means  of  reference 
reading,  correlation,  and  application ;  if  he  has  discovered  in 
its  contents  sources  of  valuable  knowledge,  and  has  learned 
that  much  of  this  knowledge  is  influenced  by  individual  in- 
terpretation, —  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  his  conception 
of  the  textbook  is  more  fruitful  of  concentrative  study  than  if 
it  is  treated  in  the  usual  manner  as  a  mere  source  of  memory 
material.  But  the  textbook  has  not  fulfilled  its  mission  until 
the  pupil  has  become  inspired  to  want  more  of  the  subject  it 
represents.  If  valuable  at  all  it  deserves  longer  studying, 
provided,  of  course,  that  its  subject-matter  has  definite  appli- 
cation to  a  career. 

The  general  appearance  of  recent  textbooks  indicates  that 
authors  and  publishers  are  conscious  of  the  function  the 
textbook  must  perform  in  arousing  interest  and  effort.  Many 
and  excellent  illustrations,  usually  photographs  where  the 
subject  lends  itself  to  this  kind  of  illustration,  drawings  by 
skilled  artists,  diagrams,  color  work  of  various  kinds  —  form 
the  attractive  features  of  the  newer  books.  In  books  on  his- 
tory and  literature  the  subject-matter  in  most  instances  is 
entertaining  and  illuminating.  The  selection  and  arrangement 
of  type  is  greatly  improved. 

230 


The  Textbook  as  an  Incentive  or  Inspiration     231 

All  of  us,  no  doubt,  can  recall  our  pride  in  the  attractive 
school  books  that  filled  the  school  bag  suspended  on  our  backs 
like  a  soldier's  knapsack.  We  wanted  new  and  clean  books. 
Mother  had  no  rest  until  she  sewed  on  covers,  which,  if  left 
to  our  choice,  made  the  books  dazzlingly  unique.  Solomon  in 
all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  as  one  of  these.  Pride  of  pos- 
session was  blended  with  growing  interest  in  the  book  because 
of  its  mysteries,  its  illustrations,  its  fascinating  tales.  Pupils 
doubtless  have  the  same  emotions  to-day.  Curiosity  is  ever 
a  powerful  educational  force.  And  the  author  and  publisher 
who  have  not  forgotten  the  tastes  and  fancies  of  their  own  youth 
will  let  memory  lead  the  way  to  a  properly  modified  and 
improved  artistry  of  bookmaking  that  will  serve  as  a  well- 
sustained  incentive  and  inspiration  to  study. 

But  after  the  author  and  the  publisher  have  done  their 
part  there  remains  a  no  less  significant  task  for  the  teach^ 
to  perform.  He  must  fan  into  flame  the  sparks  of  enthusiasm 
ignited  by  the  textbook.  The  author  and  the  publisher  have 
begun  what  the  teacher  must  continue  and  complete.  The 
textbook  will  not  teach  itself ;  it  will  form  a  basis  of  progres- 
sive study  that  by  its  very  success  kindles  enthusiasm.  But 
the  teacher  with  personality  and  sincere  devotion  must  take 
the  best  in  the  textbook  and  the  best  in  the  pupil  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  citizen  who  will  think  and  labor  and  create  as 
his  ancestors  thought  and  worked  and  created  for  their  gen- 
erations. 

This  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  must  not  be  con- 
ceived of  as  a  mere  exhortation,  a  contentless  appeal  that  is 
soon  exhausted  because  it  has  nothing  to  feed  upon.  Only 
by  means  of  a  careful  study  of  the  contents  of  the  textbook 
and  a  wider  reading  along  lines  of  its  subject-matter  can  the 


232  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

teacher  acquire  substance  for  his  enthusiasm.  But  more  than 
this.  There  is  a  certain  arrangement  of  material  or  organi- 
zation of  the  course  that  lends  itself  to  the  proper  arousing  of 
interest  in  a  subject.  This  lesson  plan  or  type  of  organization 
may  be  called  The  Inspirational  Preview. 


The  Inspirational  Preview 

The  Purpose  of  the  Preview.  The  purpose  of  this  particu- 
lar lesson  type  is  apparent  from  its  title.  But  this  general 
purpose  has  a  threefold  line  of  approach. 

Presenting  Educational  Value  of  the  Course.  In  the  traditional 
table  d'hote  type  of  education  the  pupil  was  expected  to 
study  what  was  set  before  him  and  it  was  not  his  to  reason 
why,  only  to  do  and  ever  try.  But  the  pupil  is  entitled  to 
know  some  of  the  reasons  for  his  being  required  or  advised  to 
study  a  particular  course.  In  these  days  educators  are  much 
concerned  over  the  problem  of  educational  values,  and  many 
of  the  details  in  this  educational  field  are  still  uncertain,  but 
there  are  general  statements  as  to  the  value  of  the  respective 
subjects  that  justifiably  can  be  told  the  pupil.  He  is  entitled 
to  know  the  cultural  and  practical  advantages  of  the  course 
he  is  about  to  pursue. 

This  apologetic  is  simply  and  briefly  set  forth  in  the  initial 
class  period  of  the  term's  work.  It  is  presented  entertainingly, 
but  primarily  it  is  told  so  clearly  and  with  so  strong  convic- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  that  the  pupil  is  not  left  in 
doubt  about  the  good  that  he  has  a  right  to  expect  will  come 
to  him  from  a  conscientious  application  of  his  mental  strength 
to  the  various  topics  that,  panorama-like,  are  unreeled  in  the 
schoolroom. 


The  Textbook  as  an  Incentive  or  Inspiration     233 

Fostering  enthusiasm  for  the  course.  The  teacher  is  a  sales- 
man of  truth.  He  will  either  stimulate  a  desire  for  the  course, 
or  he  will  leave  the  pupil  indifTerent  and  perhaps  hostile.  By 
means  of  correlations  and  interesting  allusions  he  will  so  pleas- 
ingly unfold  the  possibilities  ahead  that  the  pupil  becomes 
eager  to  advance  to  the  treasure  chambers  that  are  described. 
A  rapid  survey  of  the  book  by  a  study  of  the  table  of  contents 
and  a  description  of  some  of  the  characters  or  applications 
belonging  to  the  subject  supplies  material  for  this  kind  of 
inspirational  preview.  Unless  the  teacher  is  convinced  that 
the  subject  is  worth  while  and  unless  he  begins  the  work  in  an 
atmosphere  of  well-founded  enthusiasm  he  cannot  expect 
the  pupil  to  be  aflame  with  eagerness  to  follow  him  in  the  dif- 
ficulties that  are  bound  to  appear.  A  listless,  hack-driven 
teacher  will  spoil  the  best  textbook  ever  written.  A  teacher 
on  fire  with  conviction  and  enthusiasm  will  extract  from  the 
poorest  textbook  gems  of  meaning  and  treasures  of  life,  that 
the  pupil  will  be,  shall  we  say,  hypnotized  into  desiring.  It 
certainly  is  hypnotism  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word. 

Constructing  a  background.  The  artist  of  stage-scenery 
knows  the  importance  of  painting  a  back-drop  that  will  give 
perspective  and  atmosphere  to  the  drama.  A  man  with  a 
background  of  experience  is  not  bewildered  in  the  presence  of 
new  incidents.  And  the  pupil  who  has  had  the  privilege  of 
seeing  the  course  in  birds'-eye  view  will  attack  the  details  of 
the  subject  with  more  confidence  of  success.  The  inspira- 
tional preview  paints  the  background,  and  makes  it  a  com- 
posite of  the  experiences  of  every  member  of  the  class.  The 
teacher  paints  with  the  author's  materials  also,  using  the  text- 
book as  an  artist  does  a  charcoal  sketch.  This  background  is 
made  even  richer  by  a  brief  reference  to  the  history  of  the 


234  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

subject.  There  is  hardly  a'  subject  in  the  program  of  studies 
whose  history  cannot  hold  the  pupils  spell-bound. 

In  a  previous  chapter  mention  was  made  of  arithmetic. 
Think  of  the  sciences,  and  of  the  languages.  Wonderful 
lessons  can  be  planned  on  the  means  by  which  historical 
knowledge  has  reached  us,  with  vases,  friezes,  obelisks,  rocks, 
and  arches  as  the  pages,  and  strange  pictorial  writing  and 
peculiar  letters  as  the  vehicle  of  the  record  itself.  Pictures 
of  these  early  histories  abound.  The  alert  teacher  who  loves 
the  task  of  teaching  will  be  on  the  search  for  illustrative  ma- 
terial of  this  sort. 

Summary.  The  inspirational  preview  is  not  a  loose  emo- 
tional exhortation.  It  is  emotion  controlled  by  intellect  but 
not  dominated  thereby.  The  emotional  element  is  strong, 
but  it  is  made  effective  by  well-stated  reasons  for  the  studying 
of  the  subject  with  carefully  selected  points  of  interest  that 
will  develop  a  taste  for  the  work;  and  building  up  a  back- 
ground that  will  give  not  only  a  perspective  and  atmosphere 
but  a  prospect  that  makes  the  pupil  feel  familiar  with  the 
topics  and  terms  and  meanings  that  he  will  study  throughout 
the  term. 

Method  of  Teaching.  In  carrying  out  the  purpose  of  the 
lesson  of  appreciation  as  outlined  in  the  preceding  section 
the  teacher  will  use  the  textbook  in  at  least  four  different 
ways. 

Reviewing  of  related  experience.  Not  only  must  the  pupil 
be  prepared  but  the  subject  must  be  prepared  for  the  pupil. 
He  has  already  had  some  experience  in  the  field  of  study  that 
lies  ahead,  but  he  does  not  understand  how  his  errands  at 
home,  his  arguments  with  playmates,  his  observations  here 
and  there,  are  related  to  the  work  he  is  now  to  begin.    The 


The  Textbook  as  an  Incentive  or  Inspiration     235 

teacher  with  knowledge  of  child,  adolescent,  and  adult  psy- 
chology will  appeal  to  these  informal  experiences  of  the  pupil. 
School  and  life  will  be  blended  into  unified  conceptions  that 
serve  as  reviews  and  new  views  of  many  heretofore  enjoyable 
but  perhaps  less  intelligible  incidents  of  living.  The  text- 
book is  presented  as  part  of  this  familiar  experience,  but  a 
part  that  explains  and  leads. 

Inspirational  previews  in  textbooks.  Many  authors  open 
their  books  with  material  that  embraces  some  of  the  princi- 
ples of  the  inspirational  preview.  Select  Orations  of  Cicero  by 
D*Ooge  ^  devotes  87  pages  to  a  study  of  Cicero  and  his  times. 
There  is  material  here  for  coordination  with  ancient  history  and 
with  modem  civics.  The  book  abounds  with  illustrations, 
many  of  which  are  taken  from  the  author's  own  unpublished 
photographs  which  he  took  on  the  ancient  sites.  One  gets  the 
author's  plan  of  developing  enthusiasm  in  the  fact  that  out 
of  552  pages  only  160  deal  with  the  Latin  text.  The  re- 
mainder consist  of  sidelights,  helpful  notes,  vocabularies, 
lists  of  synonyms,  etc. 

The  Black  and  Davis  Practical  Physics^  he^ns  the  first  chap- 
ter with  a  discussion  on  Why  study  Physics  ?  There  are  stimu- 
lating paragraphs  on  Physics  —  a  Science,  Divisions  of  Physics, 
Units  of  Measurement,  of  Area,  of  Volume,  of  Weight,  of 
Density,  etc.  The  selection  of  material  (as  well  as  the  careful 
omission  of  certain  heavy  subject-matter)  and  the  general 
style  tend  to  attract  the  pupil  to  concentrative  study. 

It  probably  is  necessary  to  make  a  textbook  rather  formal  in 
treatment,  but  there  are  fascinating  possibilities  in  using  the 
colloquial  style  for  such  courses.  Coulter's  Elementary 
Science^  is  really  an  extended  inspirational  preview  to  the 

*  Sanborn  &  Co.,  1912.  •  Macmillan,  1913.         » Am.  Bk.  Co.,  1917. 


236  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

whole  field  of  science.    The  general  style  of  the  book  may  be 
seen  from  the  opening  paragraphs. 

Air,  water,  soil,  heat,  light,  plants,  and  animals  —  these  are  the 
principal  things  that  make  up  what  we  call  nature.  You  will  find 
that  your  life  is  a  sort  of  partnership  with  nature.  To  live  in  it 
the  best  way,  you  need  to  understand  this  partnership  as  well 
as  you  can.  You  need  to  know  how  to  do  your  part  in  it.  Life  is 
the  most  interesting  thing  in  the  world.  You  want  to  find  out  all 
you  can  about  it  so  that  you  can  make  your  own  life  as  happy 
and  successful  as  possible.  A  good  way  to  go  at  this  business 
of  finding  out  about  life  is  to  study  first  the  things  that  are  neces- 
sary to  all  kinds  of  life,  plants  as  well  as  animals,  and  see  how 
these' things  work  together  to  make  our  own  lives  possible  and 
pleasant.  That  is  what  we  shall  do  in  this  book.  We  shall 
study  the  seven  things  mentioned  in  the  first  sentence.  We 
shall  study  the  conditions  that  are  necessary  for  our  own  lives, 
and  this  will  help  us  a  great  deal  in  finding  out  how  we  ought 
to  live. 

For  thousands  of  years  men  have  been  finding  out  more  and  more 
about  the  world.  Each  year  new  knowledge  is  added  to  the  old, 
and  this  knowledge  of  nature  is  called  natural  science.  You  have 
read  about  cavemen  and  other  ancient  people,  and  you  know  that 
the  savage  men  of  long  ago  had  a  hard  struggle  for  existence.  They 
did  not  understand  how  to  work  in  partnership  with  nature,  and 
so  nature  seemed  more  of  an  enemy  than  a  friend.  There  was 
much  hunger  in  those  days.  Famine,  wild  beasts,  and  cold 
weather  —  these  were  enemies  against  which  man  hardly  knew  how 
to  protect  himself.  He  lived  "from  hand  to  mouth."  Only  the 
strong  and  hardy  survived  in  those  perilous  times.  But  since 
then  men  have  made  hundreds  of  discoveries  about  nature.  These 
discoveries  have  made  it  possible  to  live  much  more  safely  and 
comfortably,  until  to-day  even  poor  people  have  more  comforts 
than  had  the  kings  and  queens  of  old. 


The  Textbook  as  an  Incentive  or  Inspiration     237 

Painstaking  care  has  been  taken  to  produce  not  only  in- 
spiring material  but  artistic  setting  for  this  subject-matter 
in  the  McManns  and  Haaren  Series  of  Readers.*  The  child 
who  reads  the  Primer  and  the  four  other  readers  is  certainly  in 
Joyland.  The  three-color  illustrations  harmonize  with  the 
page.  In  the  Fourth  Reader  a  careful  selection  has  been  made 
from  standard  literature  that  is  applicable  to  child  life  of  the 
Fourth  Grade.  The  selections  are  in  themselves  excellent 
previews  of  the  delights  made  possible  by  ability  to  read. 

The  present  necessity  of  making  first-year  Latin  introduc- 
tory to  Caesar  has  many  quite  various  disadvantages,  among 
them  being  the  formal  and  purely  academic  nature  of  the 
course.  A  first-year  course  that  can  make  the  subject-matter 
attractive  and  develop  in  the  pupil  a  genuine  enthusiasm  for 
more  Latin  is  not  altogether  impossible.  A  Year  in  Latin 
by  W.  A.  Montgomery  ^  has  certain  unique  features.  While 
preparation  to  read  Caesar  is  the  primary  aim  of  the  book, 
the  author  has  attempted  also  to  give  the  pupil  some  idea  of 
the  mythology,  history,  and  customs  of  the  Romans.  There 
is  a  section  devoted  to  Connected  Readings  from  Caesar,  with 
pertinent  leadings  and  discriminating  helps.  The  author 
gives  a  list  of  Latin  Phrases  Current  in  English,  such  as  busi- 
ness terms,  crests,  coats  of  arms,  etc.,  humorous  phrases,  legal 
phrases,  medical  terms,  school  and  college,  religious  terms, 
miscellaneous  phrases,  current  proverbs,  mottoes  of  sales  and 
of  states.  Another  unusual  feature  is  the  inclusion  of  four 
songs  with  musical  notation;  namely,  Gaudeamus  Igitur, 
Dulce  Domum  (2),  and  a  Latin  play  song. 

Thomas  and  Howe  in  their  Composition  and  RJietoric  de- 
vote ten  and  a  half  pages  to  a  carefully  selected  list  of  Viola- 
^  Scribner,  191 7.  '  Row,  Peterson  and  Comf>any. 


238  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

tions  of  Good  Use.  They  give  also  a  practical  treatment  on 
Methods  for  increasing  One's  Vocabulary.  Pupils  who  are 
directed  in  the  reading  of  Canby  and  Opdyke's  ^  grammatical 
review  in  their  Elements  of  Composition  will  feel  that  here  the 
practical  benefits  of  studying  English  are  well  presented. 
The  threefold  division  of  this  book  into  the  Means  of  Com- 
position, the  Ends  of  Composition,  and  the  Aids  to  Compo- 
sition is  a  happy  organization  through  which  much  that  is 
inspiring  toward  zealous  study  is  possible.  In  the  Thomas 
and  Howe  text  there  are  quotations  from  several  themes  writ- 
ten by  high  school  pupils.  Their  general  superiority  must 
act  as  an  incentive  to  the  pupil. 

Energetic  first  impression.  The  initial  command  of  the 
term's  work  is  a  vigorous  "  Attention."  The  teacher  is 
ready,  the  material  is  ready.  There  is  to  be  no  uncertainty 
about  the  start,  no  confused  running  about  mentally,  but  a 
positive,  clear  call  to  work.  The  first  start  is  not  like  a  gentle 
trickling  of  a  stream,  but  rather  like  the  sudden  bursting  forth 
of  a  fountain  and  geyser.  The  first  impression  will  capture 
or  the  hunt  for  the  pupil's  interest  will  be  long  and  perhaps 
unsuccessful.  This  implies  that  the  teacher  will  know  the 
textbook  and  the  plan  of  procedure  the  first  day.  Many  hours 
will  have  been  spent  in  getting  ready  for  this  first  attack. 

Outlining  the  term's  work.  Some  teachers  find  it  advan- 
tageous to  make  a  schedule  of  the  days  on  which  the  various 
topics  will  be  studied.  Such  a  calendar  may  not  be  followed 
exactly,  but  it  impresses  the  pupil  with  the  scope  of  the  course, 
the  systematic  development  of  it,  and  may  prevent  unneces- 
sary absences.  The  outline,  furthermore,  makes  it  possible  to 
give  proper  emphasis  to  carefully  selected  topics.     Some  of 

1  Macmillan. 


The  Textbook  as  an  Incentive  or  Inspiration     239 

these  topics  may  be  referred  to  in  the  beginning  of  the  term  as 
deserving  special  study,  with  the  promise  that,  when  the  class 
is  ready  for  them,  some  very  interesting  and  valuable  facts 
will  come  to  light.  Such  outlines  are  now  usually  required 
of  teacher  candidates  in  schools  of  education.  Ability  to 
organize  the  term's  work  a  long  time  ahead  and  to  see  it  in 
proper  perspective  will  enable  the  teacher  to  find  illustrations 
and  practical  applications,  without  which  teaching  in  any 
subject  must  proceed  with  considerable  monotony. 

Summary.  The  Inspirational  Preview  seeks  to  awaken 
the  pupil's  interest  in  the  course  as  a  whole.  It  is  not  con- 
cerned with  any  one  topic  in  the  course,  although  its  place  in 
the  beginning  of  a  new  topic  has  obvious  advantages.  It 
solicits  the  pupil's  willingness  and  effort  by  giving  him  a 
large  and  interesting  preview  or  panorama,  so  well  organized 
and  so  skillfully  presented  that  every  pupil  enrolled  in  the 
subject  will  feel  eager  to  cooperate  to  make  the  class  work 
smooth  and  successful.  Such  a  start  will  prevent  many  of 
the  hardships  that  teachers  encounter  in  presenting  an  un- 
popular subject.  The  inspirational  preview  may  be  called 
an  appetizer.  It  makes  the  pupil  hungry  for  the  rich  meal 
that  will  soon  be  spread  before  him. 

GENERAL  SUMMARY 

A  hasty  glance  over  the  field  that  has  been  developed  in 
this  volume  can  hardly  fail  to  impress  the  student  of  this 
subject  that  a  very  thoroughgoing  investigation  needs  to 
be  made  into  the  administrative  and  instructional  phases 
of  the  textbook  problem.  To  a  considerable  degree  this 
is  an  American  school  problem  more  than  a  European  one. 


240         Textbook  J  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Nowhere  else  have  textbooks  reached  the  high  development 
that  they  possess  in  this  country.  So  large  is  the  demand 
for  school  books  and  so  complex  is  the  problem  of  supplying 
them  that  many  questions  of  publication  and  distribution  have 
arisen.  It  is  very  evident  that  without  the  farsightedness  and 
the  business  acumen  of  the  many  publishing  houses  the  im- 
provement of  textbooks  would  have  been  impossible.  The 
textbook  publisher  is  essentially  an  educator.  He  feels  the 
pulse  of  the  educational  world.  He  is  quick  to  grasp  the  best  of 
the  new  and  to  make  it  part  of  the  books  for  the  coming  genera- 
tion. Instead  of  fewer  books,  we  need  many  more  of  the  most 
highly  developed  examples  of  scientific  and  artistic  bookmaking. 

In  the  hands  of  the  skillful  teacher  the  textbook  is  a  won- 
derful tool  whose  mastery  will  make  independent  studying 
effective  and  fascinating.  It  is  also  a  miniature  exhibit  of 
world  thinking.  Like  a  Baedeker  it  guides  and  directs.  To 
the  careful  student  it  interprets  what  man  has  thought  and 
wrought ;  and  as  the  learner  grasps  some  of  its  meanings  he 
is  inspired  to  delve  into  the  mysteries  of  intellectual  treasures 
for  the  glory  of  life. 

Illustrations  of  Directions  in  Books  and  in  Class  Procedure. 
An  example  of  how  the  various  suggestions  in  the  chapters 
on  textbook  usage  may  be  applied  is  furnished  by  Lewis  and 
Hosic  in  their  Practical  English  for  High  Schools.  They 
begin  by  calling  the  pupil's  attention  to  the  following  points : 

THE  USE  OF  THIS  TEXTBOOK 

Spend  one  study  period  in  examining  this  book.  Discover  the 
following : 

I.  The  purpose  it  is  meant  to  serve. 


The  Textbook  as  an  Incentive  or  Inspiration     241 

2.  The  manner  in  which  it  is  intended  to  be  used. 

3.  What  parts  of  it  are  most  interesting. 

4.  In  what  ways  it  will  be  useful  to  you. 

5.  Who  wrote  it,  and  when  and  by  whom  it  was  published. 

6.  How  the  index  is  arranged. 

7.  Whether  there  are  other  features  of  the  book  worth  con- 
sidering. Be  prepared  to  discuss  with  your  classmates  the  points 
outlined  above.     In  discussion  try  to  be  clear  and  courteous. 

First  of  all,  learn  how  to  study. 

Then  follow  several  paragraphs  on  the  value  of  the  course,  how 
to  learn,  and  similar  material. 

When  authors  keep  in  mind  the  important  fact  that  the 
textbook  is  a  tool,  a  source  of  knowledge,  an  interpretation  of 
truth,  a  guide  to  supplementary  and  reference  reading,  and 
also  a  vehicle  of  inspiration,  the  arrangement  of  material  and 
the  introduction  of  directive  suggestions  will  be  found  in  more 
abundance  than  is  now  common  even  in  the  most  recent  texts. 
Many  of  the  books  would  become  much  more  effective  if  they 
contained  less  subject-matter  and  more  directions  for  the  mas- 
tery of  the  course.  If  these  directions  are  copious  in  the  be- 
ginning of  a  topic  and  gradually  decrease  in  number  as  the 
pupil  grasps  the  meaning  of  each  unit  in  the  course  there  will 
be  httle  danger  of  oversupplying  him  with  needful  helps. 

The  following  description  of  classroom  technic  is  taken  from 
Supervised  Study  in  American  History  ^  and  illustrates  how 
the  author,  Miss  Mabel  Simpson,  applied  some  of  the  sugges- 
tions regarding  the  use  of  the  textbook. 
^  Macmillan,  19x8. 


242  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Judge  It 

Definite  Instruction  in  "How  to  Study" 
the  proper  use  of  the  textbook 

I.  The  Problem  for  consideration,  or  What  must  be  understood : 

What  people  were  the  first  among  the  early  leaders  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  why  ? 

It  is  well  at  the  beginning  of  the  term  to  state  the  problem  for 
the  pupils.  Then  impress  it  upon  their  attention  by  frequently 
having  it  restated.  In  this  way,  they  will  acquire  the  habit  of 
having  a  definite  thing  in  mind  when  they  take  up  their  books, 
and,  from  the  beginning,  can  be  taught  to  consider  and  collect 
only  such  data  as  have  a  definite  bearing  upon  the  problem  to  be 
solved. 

This  problem  should  be  written  upon  the  board.  Then  ask  the 
pupils  how  they  are  to  find  any  information  which  will  help  them 
to  understand  this  topic.  This  will  result  in  their  realizing  their 
need  for  the  textbook. 

n.  Instruction  in  "How  to  Study."  How  to  use  the  Text- 
book.    (Teacher  working  with  the  class.) 

Directions,    Given  by  the  teacher : 

I.  How  many  things  can  you  tell  me  about  this  book  after 
reading  what  is  printed  on  the  outside  only  ? 

The  Title  Page.  2.  Turn  to  the  first  page  containing  print- 
ing. Read  it ;  compare  it  with  the  words  on  the  outside  of  the 
book  and  tell  me  what  you  find  on  this  page  which  you  did  not 
find  on  the  outside  cover. 

3.  What  is  this  page  called  and  why? 
(If  no  one  knows,  tell  the  class  and  write  name  on  the  board.) 

The  Preface.  4.  Read  the  preface  and  be  ready  to  tell  why  a 
book  needs  a  preface. 

(Allow  sufficient  time  for  each  to  read.  Then  discuss  the 
meaning  of  the  word  and  why  the  authors  placed  this  brief  state- 


The  Textbook  as  an  Ittccntive  or  Inspiration     243 

ment  at  the  beginning  of  their  book ;  also  its  value  to  us  as  readers. 
Encourage  the  pupils  to  ask  questions  about  it.) 

The  Contents.  5.  Why  does  a  book  have  a  table  of  contents, 
and  why  is  it  placed  in  the  front  of  the  book  ? 

6.  How  many  chapters  does  this  book  contain  ? 

7.  In  what  way  does  the  "Contents"  help  a  reader? 

8.  Read  the  titles  of  the  chapters  and  select  the  one  you  think 
may  give  us  any  information  about  the  first  people  to  be  the  leaders 
of  civilization. 

Chapter  I.  i.  Glance  at  the  first  page  of  this  chapter,  and 
without  reading  it,  tell  me  what  you  notice  about  this  page.  (Dif- 
ferent types  of  print.  Explain  the  reason  for  using  these  different 
types,  if  the  pupils  cannot.) 

2.  How  many  paragraphs  do  you  find  on  the  heading  **  America 
—  The  New  Part "  ?  —  (Three.) 

3.  Select  the  proper  names  on  this  page  which  might  be  difficult 
for  you  to  pronounce.  —  (Martin  Waldseemiiller,  Americus 
Vespucius.) 

4.  Find  the  end  of  the  chapter,  and  see  if  you  can  obtain  any 
help.  —  (P.  18,  "Pronouncing  List.")  (Explain  to  the  class  that 
some  books  have  this  list  at  the  end  of  the  book  rather  than  after 
each  chapter.  Also  tell  them  how  to  find  the  proper  pronuncia- 
tion, if  the  book  has  no  list.) 

5.  On  page  2,  why  are  two  sentences  written  in  different  type? 
Give  term  for  this.  —  (Italics.) 

6.  Quickly  read  the  three  paragraphs  under  the  first  topic,  and 
decide  whether  they  are  of  value  to  us  in  collecting  information 
concerning  our  problem. 

(Obtain  the  opinion  of  the  class  by  asking  how  many  think  it  is 
valuable,  and  how  many  do  not.  If  the  majority  of  the  class  have 
made  the  right  decision,  call  upon  a  pupil  who  is  incorrect  or 
uncertain,  to  give  his  reason ;  then  help  him  to  see  why  he  is  wrong. 
Write  a  brief  statement  of  the  important  fact,  if  any,  on  the  board 
under  the  statement  of  the  problem.    At  every  step  of  the  lesson. 


244  Textbook,  How  to  Use  It  and  Jtuige  It 

encourage  the  pupils  to  ask  questions.    It  is  the  best  proof  we  can 
have  of  definite,  purposive  thinking.) 

7.  In  the  same  way,  read  the  next  two  paragraphs. 

8.  Consult  the  small  map  on  next  page  for  location  of  Nile  and 
Euphrates  rivers,  —  Egypt  and  Chaldea.  Then  locate  these  places 
with  relation  to  America,  on  a  wall  map  of  the  world. 

9.  Before  reading  about  the  Egyptians,  question  the  class  to 
aid  them  in  determining  what  important  facts  should  be  looked 
for.  Some  such  brief  outline  should  be  written  on  the  board  before 
beginning  to  read : 

The  Egyptians.  Who  they  were. 

Where  they  lived. 
What  they  did. 

10.  Under  the  topic  Egyptians,  decide  how  many  paragraphs 
or  pages  are  devoted  to  the  subject.     (Pp.  4-8.) 

11.  When  should  we  make  a  careful  study  of  the  illustrations 
a  book  contains  ? 

12.  Read  silently  all  information  given  about  the  Egyptians. 
Then  make  a  list  of  the  great  things  they  accomplished.  (Allow 
sufficient  time  for  this.  Work  with  any  who  seem  to  have  diffi- 
culty.) 

When  this  has  been  done,  the  lesson  should  be  concluded  at  this 
point.  Do  not  attempt  to  determine  how  well  they  have  mastered 
the  facts  contained  in  the  subject-matter  studied.  This  will  be 
done  in  the  review  on  the  following  day.  Our  chief  purpose  at  this 
time  is  to  attempt  to  create  a  liking  for  history,  by  giving  the  class 
a  glimpse  of  how  to  study  it. 

Since  this  is  the  first  lesson  where  a  textbook  is  used,  it  seems 
more  advisable  for  the  teacher  to  work  with  the  class  as  a  whole. 
The  suggestions  contained  in  the  above  lesson  have,  therefore,  been 
planned  for  the  entire  class. 


The  Textbook  as  an  Incentive  or  Inspiration     245 


QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Do  you  find  that  the  authors  of  your  textbooks  employ  any 
means  of  arousing  interest  in  the  subjects?  What  are  these 
means? 

2.  What  are  the  fimctions  of  the  inspirational  preview? 

3.  How  would  you  teach  by  the  inspirational  preview  method  ? 
Should  lessons  of  this  type  be  employed  frequently?  When  are 
they  of  special  importance? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  diiOSculties  in  the  way  of  organizing 
the  term's  work  a  long  time  in  advance? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  benefits  that  might  result  from  the 
teacher  organizing  a  Lesson  Plan  Book? 

6.  What  do  you  consider  to  be  your  greatest  duty  and  privilege 
as  a  teacher  ? 

REFERENCES 

i  Hayward,  F.     The  Lesson  in  Appreciation.    Macmillan;  191 5. 

\  Simpson,  Mabel.    Supervised  Study  in  American  History.    Macmillan; 

1918. 


APPENDIX 


The  following  lists  of  words  have  been  compiled  by  Pro- 
fessor Hugh  Clark  Preyer  of  the  University  of  Colorado. 
They  are  being  used  in  several  of  the  western  schools.  The 
selection  seems  to  the  writer  so  valuable  that  it  is  given  here 
as  one  of  the  latest  and  best  guides  to  writers  of  Spelling 
books. 

A  Minimal  Spelling  List,  Arranged  by  Grades 

The  words  indicated  by  asterisk  are  the  169  found  in  Ayres's  Meas- 
uring Scale  for  AhUUy  in  Spelling,  but  in  fewer  than  6  of  our  12  lists. 


-y 


Second  Grade 

{343  words) 

add 

ate 

begin 

boy 

after 

August 

♦begun 

bread 

ago 

aunt 

belong 

brick 

air 

away 

best 

bright 

alone 

bad 

better 

bring 

also 

baU 

biU 

brother 

am 

♦band 

bird 

♦brought 

among 

bank 

black 

bum 

an 

basket 

block 

but 

ankle 

be 

blue 

buy 

are 

been 

boat 

by 

arm 

bear 

body 

caU 

as 

bed 

boil 

came 

ask 

before 

book 

♦can 

asleep 

beg 

both 

candy 

at 

♦began 

box 

card 

H7 


248 


Appendix 


care 

door 

found 

having 

*carry 

down 

♦four 

he 

cart 

draw 

♦fourth 

head 

case 

dress 

fowl 

hear 

cat 

drink 

freeze 

heard 

catch 

drop 

fresh 

heart 

cent 

*drown 

from 

♦held 

chair 

drowned 

front 

help 

change 

dust 

full 

her 

chicken 

each 

game 

here 

church 

ear 

garden 

high 

*claim 

early 

get 

hill 

clerk 

east 

getting 

him 

coat 

♦eight 

girl 

himself 

cold 

even 

give 

his 

comb 

♦evening 

go 

home 

come 

ever 

♦God 

horse 

copy 

every 

goes 

♦hot 

cost 

eye 

going 

house 

could 

face 

gold 

how 

coimt 

fair 

gone 

hungry 

*cover 

faU 

good 

hurt 

cow 

far 

got 

I 

cross 

fast 

grass 

ice 

cup 

father 

great 

if 

cut 

feed 

green 

ill 

dark 

feet 

ground 

in 

dead 

feU 

grow 

into 

dear 

fence 

guess 

invite 

December 

few 

had 

is 

deep 

mi 

hair 

it 

did 

find 

half 

jump 

dirt 

fine 

hand 

keep 

do 

first 

hang 

kind 

doctor 

*five 

♦happen 

knew 

*does 

fix 

happy 

knife 

dog 

flower 

hard 

laid 

doUar 

fly 

has 

large 

done 

foot 

hat 

late 

don't 

for 

have 

lay 

Appendix 


249 


lazy 

put 

theater 

Third  Grade 

leaf 

♦ran 

them 

leg 

read 

then 

(408  wards) 

lesson 

red 

these 

about 

let 

road 

they 

above 

letter 

root 

this 

across 

long 

rose 

three 

act 

♦lost 

round 

time 

addition 

make 

run 

to 

afraid 

making 

said 

told 

again 

me 

saw 

took 

♦alike 

meet 

say 

top 

all 

men 

♦says 

two 

alley 

more 

school 

under 

allow 

mother 

seed 

up 

almost 

mouse 

seven 

us 

along 

mouth 

shaU 

was 

always 

my 

she 

wash 

animal 

near 

shoe 

water 

another 

never 

shut 

we 

answer 

new 

sick 

weU 

any 

next 

sister 

went 

anything 

nice 

sit 

were 

anyway 

*nine 

six 

west 

appear 

no 

sky 

what 

apple 

♦nor 

snow 

white 

April 

nose 

so 

who 

around 

not 

soap 

will 

arrest 

of 

♦stole 

wind 

attend 

off 

store 

window 

autumn 

on 

story 

word 

avoid 

one 

study 

would 

baby 

only 

tail 

write 

back 

our 

take 

writing 

banana 

out 

teeth 

wrote 

bam 

own 

ten 

yes 

bath 

paper 

than 

you 

beauty 

pencil 

thank 

young 

because 

pink 

that 

your 

become 

push 

the 

behind 

250 


Appendix 


beneath 

close 

excuse 

inquire 

beside 

cloth 

explain 

intend 

between 

*clothing 

faU 

iron 

big 

coarse 

family 

island 

bite 

color 

farm 

♦its 

blossom 

coming 

farther 

jaa 

board 

common 

♦February 

June 

born 

company 

feel 

July 

bottom 

control 

fellow 

just 

bought 

cook 

field 

km 

branch 

comer 

fierce 

kitchen 

break 

cotton 

figure 

knee 

breakfast 

cough 

floor 

knock 

breath 

♦country 

flour 

knot 

bridge 

cousin 

fond 

know 

broke 

crowd 

♦forget 

lady 

brown 

daily 

fortune 

last 

build 

danger 

♦forty 

laugh 

built 

date 

♦Friday 

learn 

bundle 

daughter 

friend 

leather 

bury 

deserve 

fruit 

leave 

busy 

die 

gave 

left 

butter 

♦died 

glad 

lemon 

button 

dinner 

good-by 

lightning 

cake 

dish 

grade 

like 

car 

divide 

grain 

listen 

♦carried 

double 

grocery 

Uttle 

caught 

drive 

hall 

live 

center 

♦driven 

heavy 

look 

chase 

duty 

herself 

lose 

child 

earn 

hoarse 

lot 

children 

earth 

hold 

loud 

chimney 

♦easy 

hole 

love 

choose 

eat 

honest 

low 

*  Christmas 

egg 

honey 

machine 

circle 

else 

hope 

many 

city 

empty 

hour 

mark 

*cities 

end 

hundred 

master 

clean 

enough 

inch 

measure 

climb 

except 

♦inform 

meat 

Appendix 


251 


mice 

once 

ride 

stay 

might 

open 

right 

still 

mile 

orange 

ring 

stood 

milk 

other 

room 

stopped 

miU 

ought 

rough 

street 

minute 

over 

running 

♦struck 

miss 

pair 

safe 

sugar 

mistake 

parlor 

♦salt 

suit 

*mister 

part 

Saturday 

summer 

mistress 

party 

scissors 

sun 

Monday 

people 

see 

Sunday 

money 

perhaps 

♦seen 

supper 

month 

pick 

seU 

sure 

morning 

picture 

send 

swim 

*motion 

pie 

sent 

table 

move 

piece 

September 

talk 

much 

place 

severe 

taste 

music 

plain 

shake 

teacher 

must 

play 

♦shed 

tell 

myself 

pleasant 

ship 

themselves 

name 

point 

short 

there 

naughty 

poor 

should 

thing 

*  nearly 

pound 

show 

think 

need 

pretty 

side 

third 

ne¥^ 

•primary 

sing 

thought 

nickel 

prompt 

sleep 

thread 

night 

♦prove 

sleigh 

threw 

ninth 

quart 

smaU 

through 

noise 

quarter 

sold 

throw 

noon 

quick 

some 

Thursday 

north 

quiet 

something 

tire 

nothing 

quite 

♦sometimes 

tired 

notice 

race 

soon 

to-day 

now 

raise 

sorry 

toward 

nut 

reach 

south 

town 

obey 

ready 

speak 

traction 

o'clock 

recess 

spell 

tree 

October 

remember 

spring 

truly 

often 

♦rest 

stand 

truth 

old 

ribbon 

star 

try 

252 


Appendix 


tried 

wood 

chocolate 

guide 

Tuesday 

work 

circus 

gun 

turn 

worth 

civil 

hammer 

twelve 

wrap 

class 

healthy 

ugly 

wrapped 

club 

heat 

uncle 

written 

coffee 

history 

until 

yard 

collar 

hoping 

upon 

year 

♦contract 

human 

use 

yellow 

corn 

♦husband 

used 

yesterday 

cottage 

idea 

vacation 

yet 

country 

important 

very 

dentist 

Indian 

voice 

Fourth  Grade 

depot 

inside 

wagon 

desert 

♦itself 

wait 

(216  words) 

discover 

justice 

walk 

able 

dismiss 

kept 

wall 

according 

ditch 

king 

want 

account 

division 

labor 

warm 

ache 

dream 

land 

watch 

age 

engine 

lawn 

way 

alarm 

enjoy 

life 

wear 

allowed 

escape 

light 

week 

angel 

♦examination 

line 

wet 

attack 

expect 

linen 

wheel 

author 

failure 

lonesome 

when 

beginning 

fashion 

lying 

where 

believe 

fear 

manage 

whether 

biscuit 

feather 

man 

which 

blanket 

felt 

March 

while 

breathe 

fight 

market 

whisper 

burglar 

finish 

matter 

whistle 

bushel 

fire 

may 

whole 

cabbage 

food 

♦mayor 

whose 

*camp 

form 

mean 

why 

canoe 

forward 

metal 

winter 

capital 

furnace 

middle 

wish 

♦capture 

furniture 

mind 

with 

carriage 

grammar 

mine 

without 

chain 

♦grand 

mischief 

woman 

♦chief 

guard 

most 

Appendix 


253 


mountain 

*region 

thousand 

although 

*navy 

remain 

throat 

angry 

neighbor 

roar 

thunder 

anxious 

neither 

roof 

together 

army 

ninety 

♦rule 

to-morrow 

arrive 

ntmiber 

same 

tongue 

article 

orchard 

saucer 

too 

attention 

outside 

scholar 

track 

auto 

palace 

second 

train 

automobile 

parade 

seem 

travel 

awful 

park 

sentence 

traveler 

bathe 

pass 

separate 

trial 

beat 

past 

set 

trip 

beautiful 

pay 

several 

trouble 

♦became 

peace 

sew 

umbrella 

bicycle 

period 

shadow 

unless 

birth 

piano 

shore 

village 

blow 

pigeon 

shoulder 

visit 

bruise 

please 

since 

visitor 

business 

pleasure 

sir 

waist 

♦cannot 

pledge 

skin 

war 

carpet 

pocket 

slide 

weather 

cause 

poem 

smoke 

weigh 

cement 

poison 

soldier 

win 

chance 

police 

son 

women 

coast 

post 

stairs 

won 

collect 

potato 

start 

wonder 

column 

practice 

station 

wonderful 

comfort 

present 

stone 

world 

concern 

president 

stop 

wreck 

concert 

pumpkin 

straight 

wrong 

couple 

quarrel 

strong 

course 

question 

such 

Fifih  Grade 

court 

rain 
raisin 

sweep 
taught 

(186  words) 

cushion 
damage 

*rapid 

teach 

address 

dangerous 

reason 

term 

afternoon 

♦dash 

receive 

thick 

against 

debt 

recent 

those 

agreeable 

defeat 

regard 

though 

ab-eady 

describe 

254 


Appendix 


destroy 

journey 

proper 

Thanksgiving 

different 

judge 

railroad 

♦thus 

direction 

language 

rather 

ticket 

disappoint 

lawyer 

real 

to-night 

dispute 

length 

reply 

true 

♦district 

level 

rise 

union 

doubt 

loose 

river 

useful 

♦drill 

♦loss 

roU 

usual 

edge 

mail 

saddle 

vegetable 

equator 

match 

sail 

♦victim 

♦especially 

maybe 

scratch 

view 

everything 

medicine 

sea 

♦vote 

exercise 

merely 

secret 

wake 

expense 

modern 

section 

waste 

♦fact 

narrow 

select 

wave 

familiar 

nature 

sense 

weak 

famous 

nephew 

serious 

Wednesday 

favorite 

none 

serve 

wide 

fever 

November 

settle 

within 

fifth 

object 

shepherd 

wound 

♦final 

occupy 

sight 

woolen 

finger 

ocean 

sincerely 

♦firm 

opinion 

size 

Sixth  Grade 

♦folks 
forest 

♦organize 
♦organization 

song 
square 

{155  words) 

♦free 

orphan 

♦stamp 

absent 

frightened 

ourselves 

state 

accept 

♦gentleman 

page 

steal 

acquaintance 

glass 

passenger 

stock 

advantage 

government 

person 

strange 

advice 

handkerchief 

persuade 

succeed 

♦agreement 

heaven 

picnic 

success 

altogether 

height 

pin 

♦sudden 

appetite 

hospital 

plant 

suggest 

application 

♦immediate 

position 

supply 

arrival 

♦indeed 

pour 

suppose 

assist 

♦injure 

press 

surprise 

assistance 

instead 

price 

tear 

♦athletic 

interest 

problem 

telegraph 

attempt 

jealous 

promise 

terrible 

avenue 

Appendix 


255 


baggage 

glorious 

principal 

♦support 

balance 

guest 

principle 

♦tax 

breast 

imagine 

print 

telephone 

brief 

immediately 

prison 

temperature 

cabin 

importance 

private 

their 

calendar 

impossible 

♦progress 

thermometer 

captain 

innocent 

♦property 

thin 

catalogue 

jewel 

punish 

thorough 

certain 

least 

purpose 

♦total 

charge 

♦local 

pursue 

trust 

citizen 

luncheon 

rate 

unable 

clear 

♦manner 

really 

understand 

climate 

material 

receipt 

♦unfortunate 

coal 

mere 

refer 

valuable 

*condition 

museum 

relief 

variety 

contain 

national 

repair 

volume 

decision 

necessary 

report 

wander 

*develop 

newspaper 

request 

weight 

diamond 

note 

♦respectfully 

wife 

dictionary 

♦obedience 

restaurant 

wire 

difference 

oblige 

result 

Seventh  Grade 

♦direct 

occasion 

return 

due 

odor 

review 

{iji  words) 

during 

office 

route 

accident 

*elect 

♦omit 

scene 

acknowledge 

♦election 

order 

scenery 

♦action 

entertain 

parentage 

search 

♦adopt 

♦entitle 

particular 

season 

advertise 

♦entrance 

partner 

sheriff 

amount 

♦express 

patient 

shine 

♦annual 

extreme 

pavement 

sign 

apply 

factory 

peculiar 

silver 

appoint 

favor 

physical 

special 

appreciate 

finally 

pity 

spend 

arrange 

foreign 

plan 

spoil 

arrangement 

freight 

plenty 

spread 

association 

further 

political 

steady 

assure 

future 

possible 

stomach 

♦await 

general 

power 

strength 

bargain 

genuine 

prefer 

student 

benefit 

256 


Appendix 


bouquet 

effort 

preparation 

argument 

campaign 

♦elaborate 

privilege 

attendance 

candidate 

♦emergency 

♦publish 

camphor 

*career 

♦empire 

recognize 

♦circular 

catarrh 

♦enter 

recommend 

♦circumstance 

cemetery 

♦evidence 

reference 

♦convict 

century 

experience 

♦refuse 

corpse 

character 

♦flight 

relative 

department 

check 

gymnasium 

religion 

♦discussion 

college 

honor 

remark 

♦employ 

*colonies 

illustrate 

remedy 

♦engage 

♦combination 

♦increase 

salary 

♦entire 

command 

information 

secretary 

♦estate 

committee 

interrupt 

service 

♦estimate 

complete 

♦investigate 

♦session 

forenoon 

compliment 

invitation 

similar 

♦grant 

conduct 

issue 

signature 

♦improvement 

♦conference 

judgment 

single 

♦include 

♦connection 

knowledge 

sleeve 

♦income 

consider 

license 

society 

♦majority 

continue 

manufacture 

♦soft 

member 

convenient 

marriage 

sole 

♦official 

♦convention 

mention 

splendid 

proceed 

♦cordially 

minister 

♦steamer 

♦provide 

criticize 

moment 

subject 

♦provision 

cylinder 

mortgage 

sufficient 

public 

deal 

nuisance 

superintendent 

♦publication 

death 

♦objection 

system 

♦recover 

♦debate 

obtain 

tariff 

♦responsible 

decide 

offer 

♦testimony 

♦retire 

♦declare 

opportunity 

therefore 

secure 

♦degree 

opposite 

usually 

♦senate 

♦delay 

perfect 

♦various 

♦summon 

desire 

personal 

yield 

treasure 

♦difficulty 

physician 

vacant 

disappear 

♦population 

Eighth  Grade 

♦witness 

distance 
♦distribute 

practical 
prairie 

{38  words) 

education 

♦preliminary 

affair 

effect 

prepare 

allege 

INDEX 


Abstract  subjects,  123,  154. 
Accrediting  of  schools,  10. 
Accuracy,  120. 

and  speed,  196. 
Adams,  Professor  John,  57. 
Adaptability  of  text,  114. 
Adjectives  and  adverbs,  197,  198,  199. 
Adjustment,  social,  168,  171. 
Adverbs  and  adjectives,  197,  198,  199. 
iEneid,  117,  118. 

texts  in,  117,  n8,  135,  140. 
/Esop,  23. 
Alabama,  55. 
Alchemy,  168. 
Algebra,  34,  118,  164,  200-203. 

equations,  164,  200,  201,  202,  203. 

evaluation  in,  201 . 

fractions  in,  194,  200,  202. 

texts  in,  140,  202,  203. 
Alphabet,  20. 

Ambiguous  expressions,  199. 
American  history,  114,  193. 

Simpson,   Mabel,  on  supervising  study 
of,  241-244. 

texts  in,  87-90,  132,  133,  140,  141. 
Analysis,  150. 

Appearance  of  textbook,  84,  114,  230. 
Appendix,  119,  187. 
Apperception,  143. 

Application,  8,  85,  162,  163,  168,  171. 
Appreciation,  118. 

lesson  in,  137,  152. 
Arithmetic,  7,  15,  57,  160,  188,  200. 

addition,  194. 

colonial  textbooks  in,  31-34. 

cost  of  textbooks  in,  65,  66. 

division,  194. 

errors  in,  ;96,  197. 

fractions,  194. 

HoUoway,  on  errors  in,  196.  t97- 


multiplication,  194. 
percentage,  194. 

standards  for  judging  texts  in,  118 
Cincinnati,  95-98. 
Porsythe,  L.  E.,  92-95f  96. 
Klapper,  q8,  99. 
Mourde,  W ■  S.,  193-195. 
Smith,  D.  E.,  99,  lo©. — " 
Wilson,  G.  M.,  195,  196. 
texts  in,  10 1. 
Aristotle,  14,  17,  19,  172. 
Arizona,  49,  55- 
Art,  172. 
Articles,  197. 

Assignments,  8,  45,  118,  151,  160. 
evaluated,  143. 
in  dictionary  work,  158. 
page,  144. 
topical,  161. 
Association,  143,  160. 
Assjrria,  14. 
Astrology,  168. 
Astronomy,  15,  172,  218. 
Atlas,  158. 

Authors,  67,  H4,  138,  162,  179,  241. 
knowing,  184,  185,  186,  188. 
suggestions  to  pupils,  124-143,  186. 
Autobiographies,  185. 

Babylon,  14. 
Babylonians,  187. 
Bagley,  W.  C,  44- 
Bibles,  14,  37. 
Bibliographies,  114. 
Binding,  120,  181. 
Bingkam,  Caleb,  26,  28,  39. 
Biographical  dictionary,  157,  160. 
Blueback  Speller,  25. 

Boards  of  EducatioD,  37,  56,  57,  73, 76,  77. 
78,80. 


257 


258 


Index 


Book  reviews,  i88,  190. 

Books  {see  also  Reading),  123,  148,  163. 

care  of,  153,  154. 

open,  the,  146. 

organization  of,  187,  188. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  on,  180. 

{See    also    Textbook,    Studying,    John 
Locke.) 
Bourne,  Henry,  on  history,  114. 
Brown,  J.  F.,  on  textbooks,  63,  64. 

Caesar,  23,  115,  116,  117,  134. 
California,  49,  55,  63,  82. 
Capella,  16. 
Captions  to  tasks,  85. 
Care  of  books,  153,  154. 
Catalogues,  157. 
Catechism,  22. 
Ceremonies,  169. 
Chapters,  187,  243, 
Charles  II,  21. 
Charleston,  S.  C,  48. 
Charts,  84,  139,  142. 
Cheever,  Ezekiel,  23,  35. 
Chemistry,  17,  172,  190. 

qualities  of  good  text  in,  105. 

textbook  in,  130,  131,  140. 
Chester,  Pa.,  48. 
Children,  appealing  to,  84. 
Chronology,  160. 
Cicero,  19,  23. 

textbook  in,  235. 
Ciceronianism,  19. 
Cincinnati  standards,  82-87,  9S-98,   106, 

107,  112,  113. 
Civics,  6s,  66,  152,  162. 

texts,  91,  125-127,  13s,  136. 
Civil  war,  the,  193. 
Classics,  19,  43,  172. 
Climate,  220. 
Colloquialisms,  198. 
Colonial  development,  193. 
Colonial  wars,  193. 
Colorado,  49,  50,  51. 
Combining  terms,  201. 
Combustion,  220. 
Comenius,  20,  22,  35,  139. 
Commentaries,  15. 
Commerce,  172,  190. 
Committee  of  Eight,  192,  193. 


Complex  numbers,  202. 
Composition,  150. 

errors  in,  197,  199,  200. 
Concentration,  124. 
Concordances,  157. 
Concreteness,  84. 
"  Conduct  of  the  Understanding,"  123,  175, 

176,  189,  190. 
Connectives,  197,  199. 
Contents,  table  of,  178,  179,  181,  187,  188, 

243. 
Copyright,  188. 
Corderius,  23. 

Correlation,  152,  157,  160-162,  230. 
Correspondence,  190. 
Cost  of  textbooks,  58-61,  65-67,  68. 
Course,  open  book  in  beginning  of,  147. 
Crathorne,  on  algebra,  201,  202. 
Credits,  9. 
Critical  study,  189,  190,  228. 

Dates,  114. 

Decatur's  standards  in  reading,  107-110. 

Definiteness,  83. 

Definition  of  words,  120,  137,  159, 

Definitions,  165. 

Definitions  in  beginning  of  books,  163. 

Delaware,  49. 

Description,  119. 

Diacritical  marks,  113. 

Diagrams  {see  Illustrations),  116, 118, 119, 

139,  141, 142, 143. 
Dictation,  113. 
Dictionary,  20,  119,  146,  157,  160. 

study  of,  158-160. 
Difficulties,  146,  148. 
Dilworth's  spelling  book,  24. 

grammar,  38, 
Doughion,  Isaac,  on  spelling  and  language, 

110-112. 
Downing,  E.  R.,  on  zoology,  214-217. 
Disease,  54. 

Discovery  and  exploration,  193. 
District  of  Colvraibia,  49. 
Drafting,  190. 
Drill,  33,  98,  109,  160. 

in  algebra,  201. 

Economy  of  time,  200. 
Editions,  181. 


Index 


259 


Education,  X65,  168,  173. 
compulsory,  167. 
formal,  123. 
test  of,  isa. 
universal,  167. 
Educational  values,  116. 
Educative    process,    laa.    See    Learning 

Process. 
Educators,  195. 
Egypt,  14. 
Eg3T)tians,  14,  187. 

Elementary  schoob,  63,  no-112,  138,  153, 
158,  160,  188,  191,  194.  197.  198, 
199,  200. 
Elementary  school  subjects,  192-200. 
American  history,  192,  193. 
arithmetic,  7.  15.  3i-34.  57,  65,  66,  95- 
98,  99,  100,  160,  188,  193,  194,  195, 
196,  197,  200. 
geography,  17,  34,  35,  37,  59,  106,  119. 
gnunmar  and  language,  17, 18, 19,  29,  30, 
38,  65,  113,  119,  197,  198,  199,  200, 
204-211. 
spelling,   110-113,   158,   160,   196,   197, 
347-256. 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  48. 
Encyclopedia,  157,  160. 
Engineering,  190. 

English,  17,  18,  19,  29,  30,  38,  30,  46,  6s, 
113, 119, 197, 198, 199-2JO,  204-211. 
and  algebra,  201. 
cost  of  texts  in,  65. 
courses  in,  158,  159. 

errors  in,  197,  199,  200.    See  Composi- 
don;      Grammar   and    Language; 
Literature ;    Spelling. 
Enrollment,  52. 
Environment,  169. 
Equations,  164,  200,  201. 
graphing  of,  201. 
linear,  202,  203. 
quadratic,  201,  302. 
simple,  aoo. 
simultaneous,  201. 
Ethics,  19. 
Eutropius,  23. 
Evaluation  in  algebra,  201. 
Everyman's  Library,  193-196. 
Examinations,  147. 
Exceptions,  iso. 


Explanations,  145,  146. 

PUspairick,  P.  A.,  cm  Bookmen,  78. 

Florida,  55. 

Footnotes,  119. 

Foreign  language.    See  Latin. 

textbooks  in,  115. 

use  of  dictionary  in,  158,  159. 
Formulas,  evaluation  of,  201. 
Porsythe,  L.  E.,  on  arithmetic,  92-95,  96. 
Four  fundamentals,  the,  194,  202. 
Fractions,  in  algebra,  194,  200,  202. 
Fractional  equations,  200. 
Free  textbooks,  48-55,  61-63,  67,  149. 

advantages  of,  51-53. 

and  underscoring,  149. 

cost  of,  58-61,  65-67,  68. 

disadvantages  of,  53-54. 

general  distribution  of,  51. 

Gazetteer,  158,  160. 
Genealogical  tables,  115. 
Geography,  17,  188. 

Cincinnati  standards,  io6. 

colonial  texts  in,  34,  35,  37. 

cost  of  texts  in,  59. 

Raymont's  standnrds,  iig. 
Geometry,  15,  17. 

committee  on,  204. 

Euclidean  vs.  modem,  191,  203. 

standards  for  judging  texts,  100,  119. 

texts  in,  102-104, 129, 130,  140,  211,  213, 
213. 
Georgia,  55. 
Gestures,  169, 

Graded  difficulty  in  texts,  94,  106, 109,  lao. 
Grammar,  17,  18,  19,  119,  197-200. 

Betts  and  Marshall,  on,  199. 

Colonial,  29,  30,  38. 

cost  of  texts  in,  65. 

errors  in,  197-200. 

formal,  113. 

Meek,  on,  197,  198. 

proposed  cotirse  in,  204-3 ix. 

Randolph,  E.  D.,  on.  199- 

Sears  and  Diebel,  on,  199. 

Thompson,  on,  197. 
Graphs,  84,  85,  202. 

Harris.  W.  T.,  on  textbook,  10. 
Harvard,  35. 


26o 


Index 


Heat,  220. 

Hebrew,  35. 

High  school,  45,  153,  185,  igi. 

girls,  texts  for,  218. 
High  school  subjects : 

algebra,  34,  118,  164,  194,  200-203. 

geometry,  15,  17,  100,  119,  129,  130,  140, 
191,  203,  204,  211,  212,  213. 

history,   84,   87-90,   113-115,   132,   133, 
140,  141,  220-227. 

science,  139,  140,  150,  152,  160,  215-220, 
235- 
Historical  veracity,  114. 
History,  17,  19,  36,  37,  57,  119,  146,  147, 
152,  160,  172,  188,  220-227. 

American,  114,  193,  241-244. 

cost  of  texts  on,  65,  66. 

qualities  of  good  text  in,  84. 

Simpson,  Mabel,  on,  241-244. 

standards  for  judging  texts  in,  113-115. 

supervised  study  in,  241-244. 

texts  in,  87-90,  132,  133,  140,  141,  220- 
227. 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,  48. 
Homonyms,  197. 
Hornbook,  21. 
Household  arts,  122. 
Hygiene : 

and  sanitation,  220. 

cost  of  books  in,  65,  66. 

Idaho,  49,  55. 
Ideals,  173. 
Ideas,  171,  173. 

general,  150,  152. 
Ignorance,  167. 

Illustrations,  84,  85,  94,  95,  98,  105,  114, 
115,   116,   119,   120,   139-142,   203, 
220,  230. 
Imagination,  85. 
Imitation,  motor,  168. 
Impression,  energetic  first,  238. 
Incentive,  textbook  as  an,  230-239. 
Index,  86,  94,  114,  151,  178,  181,  187,  241. 
Industry,  172. 
Inserted  pages,  151. 
Instruction,  oral,  168. 
Interpretation,  145. 

factors  of,  184-192,  227,  228. 

textbook  as  means  of,  183-228. 


Introduction,  the,  116,  117,  118,  128,  186- 

188,  228. 
Iowa,  49. 
Israel,  14. 

Jersey  City,  48. 

Judging  textbooks,  73-119. 

Bourne's  standards  in  hbtory,  114,  115. 
Cincinnati  standards : 
in  arithmetic,  95-98. 
in  geography,  106. 
in  reading,  82-87,  io7- 
in  spelling  and  language,  112,  113. 
Decatur's  standards  on  readers,  107-110. 
Doughton's,  Isaac,  standards  in  spelling 

and  language,  i  lo-i  1 2 . 
Forsythe's,  L.  E.,  plan  in  arithmetic,  92- 

95,  96. 
Klapper's  standards  in  arithmetic,  98, 99. 
Raymonds  summary  of  standards,  118, 

119. 
Smith's,    D.   E.,    standards   in   mathe- 
matics, 99,  100. 
in  geometry,  100. 
Smith    and    Hall,    on    chemistry    and 

physics,  105. 
Twiss,  on  science,  215. 
Wayland's  standards   in    history,    113, 
114. 
Judgment  in  daily  living,  150. 
Judgment  in  studying,  149. 

Kansas,  49,  55,  63,  64-66. 
Kendall,  H.  P.,  on  reading,  80. 
Kentucky,  55. 

Kerfoot,  on  "How  to  read,"  159. 
Klapper,  on  arithmetic,  98,  99. 
Knowledge,   15,   122,   123,   138,  142,  152, 
167,  173,  192,  230. 

acquisition  of,  171. 

how  it  began,  168-170. 

must  be  viewed  as  a  system,  173,  174. 

observation  point  of,  183. 

principles  underlying  textbook,  171,  172. 

textbook  as  source  of,  1 67-1 81. 

Laboratory  courses,  40,  123. 
Language,  172,  197-200. 

cost  of  textbooks  in,  66. 

errors  in,  197-200. 


Index 


261 


Languages.    See  Latin. 

foreign,  158,  159. 

modem,  134,  139. 
Latin,  15,  17,  19,  23,  24.  35.  43,  "5.  134- 

textbooks  in,  115-118,   135,   140,   235, 
237. 
Learning,  160,  161,  167. 
Learning  process,  20,  140,  143,  145.    See 

Educative  process. 
I^ecture  method,  7. 
Libraries,  161. 
Light,  220. 

Lily  (Robertson's  edition  of),  19,  35. 
Limits,  211. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  28. 
Lisbon,  14. 

Literature,  17,  46,  118,  147,  152,  160,  164, 
172. 

textbooks  in,  128,  131,  136. 
Locke,  John,  on  reading,  123, 175, 176,  189, 

190. 
Logarithms,  202. 
Logic,  18. 
Louisiana,  56. 
Loyola,  17. 

McMwrry,  Chas.,  on  textbook,  4,  5. 

Magazines,  45,  67. 

Magic,  168. 

Magnetism,  220. 

Maine,  49. 

Man,  168,  171. 

Manual  training,  122. 

Maps,  114,  116,  117,  119,  140,  141. 

Maryland,  49. 

Massachusetts,  52,  77. 

Mathematics,  6,  172. 

Bteslick,  on,  102-104,    129,    130,    140, 
213. 

general,  loi,  213-214. 

history  of.  187. 

recent  texts  in,  162. 

Smith,  D.  E.,  on,  99,  100. 

See  Algthm;  Arithmetic;  Geometry. 
Meaning,  169,  171. 
Mechanical  make-up  of  textbook,  86,  95, 

109,  no,  114,  120. 
Melancthon,  17-19. 

Memorizing,    122,   124,    143,    144,    145. 
146. 


Memory,  115,  123,  160,  189. 
Mental  discipline,  163. 
Michigan,  49. 

Mini.sters.in  colonies,  23,  24. 
Minnesota,  49. 
Mispronunciation,  198,  199. 
Mississippi,  56. 
Missouri,  49. 

University  of,  199. 
Monohan,  A.  C,  53. 
Monroe,  W.  S.,  on  arithmetic,  193-195. 

on  algebra,  200,  201. 
Montana,  49,  55. 
Moors,  187. 
Morals,  172. 
Morphology,  214. 
Multiplication  in  algebra,  202. 
Myths,  168. 

Narration,  119. 

National  Geographic  Magazine,  45. 

Natural  history,  17. 

Natural  philosophy,  17. 

Natural  science,  1 19. 

N.  E.  A.,  78. 

Nebraska,  49. 

Negatives,  double,  197,  198,  199. 

Nevada,  49,  55. 

New  Hampshire,  49. 

New  Jersey,  49,  187,  188. 

New  Mexico,  55. 

New  York,  49. 

Nicholson,  Anne,  on  textbook  standards, 

82. 
North  Carolina,  56. 
North  Dakota,  49. 
Notations  on  inserted  pages,  151. 
Notebook,  132,  151. 
Notes,  1x6,  117,  119. 

Occupations,  194. 

Ohio,  49- 

Oklahoma.  56. 

Omissions,  197. 

Oral  instruction,  168. 

Orbis  Pictus,  20,  22,  35,  139. 

Oregon,  56. 

Oriental,  the,  168. 

Outlines,  84,  118,  119.  125-137,  ISO. 

Ovid,  23. 


262 


Index 


Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  20. 
Papyrus,  14. 
Paragraphs,  243. 
Parentheses,  removal  of,  201. 
Paris,  14. 
Pennsylvania,  49. 
Percentage,  194. 
Perception,  143. 
Periodical  gxudes,  158. 
Philadelphia,  48. 
Physics,  5,  19,  172,  203. 

standards  of  textbooks  in,  105. 

textbooks  in,  131,  140,  235. 
Physiology,  220. 
Plato,  17,  172,  173. 
Plots,  118. 
Politics,  64. 
Prayer  books,  14. 
Preface,  117,  185,  186. 
Prepositions,  199. 
Pre-revolutionary  period,  193. 
Preview,  181. 

inspirational,  232-239. 
Priestcraft,  168, 
Primers,  21-24,  43,  60. 
Principles  of  textbook  making,  illustrated : 

Algebra  (Cajori-Odell),  202. 

Algebra    (Hawkes-Tuby-Touton),    140, 
203. 

Algebra  (Schultze),  202. 

Algebra,  Practical  (Collins),  202. 

American  Beginnings  in  Europe  (Gordy), 
141. 

American  History   (Ashley),   132,   133, 
140. 

American  History  for  Grammar  Schools 
(Dickson),  87-90,  132,  140. 

Ancient  World,  The  (West),  141. 

Arithmetic  (Gilbert),  loi. 

Arithmetic  (Walsh-Suzzalo),  loi. 

CfiBsar's  Gallic  Wars,  Books  I   and   II 
(Riess  and  James),  115-117. 

Chemistry  (Morgan  and  Ljrman),  130, 
131,  140- 

Cicero,  Select  Orations  (D'Ooge),  23s. 

Civic  Biology  (Hunter),  91. 

Composition,  Elements  of  (Canby  and 
Opdyke),  238. 

Composition  and  Rhetoric  (Thomas  and 
Howe),  237, 


Education,  History  of  Modem  Elemen- 
tary (Graves),  127. 

Education,  Student's  History  of 
(Graves),  127. 

English  Composition  (Canby  and 
Others),  142. 

English,  Practical,  for  High  Schools 
(Lewis  and  Hosic),  240-241. 

French,  The  First  Book  in  (Maloubier 
and  Moore),  140. 

Geography  (Frye),  141. 

Geography  (Tarr  and  McMurry),  141. 

Geography,  Commercial  (Garrison- 
Houston),  141. 

Geography,  New  Physical  (Tarr),  137, 
138. 

Geometry,  Constructive  (Hedrick),  212. 

Geometry,  New  Plane  (Robbins),  212. 

Geometry,  Plane  (Betz  and  Webb), 
212. 

Geometry,  Plane  (Pabner  and  Taylor), 
211. 

Geometry,  Plane  (Young  and  Schwartz), 
211. 

Geometry,  Plane  and  Solid  (Ford  and 
Ammerman),  211. 

History,  Supervised  Study  in  American 
(Simpson),  241-244. 

Human  Behavior  (Colvin  and  Bagley,) 

129,  130. 

Latin,  a  Year  in  (Montgomery),  237. 
Literature,  American  (Long),  136. 
Literature,      English     and     American 

(Long),  128,  131. 
Mathematics,     Correlated     (Long    and 

Brenke),  213. 
Mathematics,   General  (Breslich),   102- 

104,  129,  130,  140,  213. 
Mathematics,  Secondary  School  (Short 

and  Elson),  213. 
Mathematics,  Vocational  (Dooley),  90, 

130,  140. 

Physics,  a  First  Course  in  (Milliken  and 

Gale),  140. 
Physics,  Practical   (Black  and  Davis), 

131,  235- 

Readers  (McMann  and  Haaren),  237. 
Science,  Elementary  (Coulter),  235. 
Science,  First  Course  in  General  (Bar- 
ber), 140. 


Index 


263 


Sodal  Problems  (Towne),  125-127.  i3S. 
136. 

Virgil's  ;Eneid  (Fairclough  and  Brown), 
117,  118,  13s,  140. 
Printing,  120,  211. 
Printing  press,  17. 

Problems,  93,  97,  105,  119,  131,  i57,  160, 
162,  163,  165,  168,  172,  194,  195, 
196,  203,  242. 
Proclus,  on  geometry,  100. 
Programs  of  study,  6. 
Progress  of  pupils,  9. 
Pronouns,  misuse  of,  198,  199. 
Pronunciation,  86,  158. 
Proper  names,  186. 

pronunciation  of,  86. 
Proportion,  84,  114,  202. 
Prosody,  117. 
Publication,  158,  186. 

date  and  place  of,  114,  176,  177,  181. 
Publishers,  10,  ii,  59,  114,  176,  241. 

knowing  the,  184,  185. 
Pupils,  9,  24,  37,  47,  56,  57,  63,  65,  151. 

aids  for,  in  textbook,  85,  124-143,  i86. 

progress  of,  9. 

reactions  by,  in  studying,  148-154,  188, 
189. 

stimulation  of,  174,  175. 

Quadratic  equations,  201,  202. 
Questions,  1 31-136. 

Racial  experience,  170. 
Radicals,  202. 

Raymont,  on  standards,  118,  xig. 
Readers.    See  Books,  Reading. 

Bingham's,  Caleb,  28. 

colonial,  27-29,  37. 

cost  of,  65,  66. 

standards  in,  82-87,  107-1  to. 

texts  in,  237. 
Reading.    See  Books,  Readers. 

and  study,  123,  144,  159. 

at  sight,  116. 

hygiene  of,  86. 

Kerfoot  on,  159. 

Locke,  John,  on,  123,  175,  176,  189,  190. 

New  Jersey  BuDetin  on,  187,  188. 
Recall.  128.  129,  143. 
Recitation,  144,  146,  152. 


Record  card  for  books  loaned,  55. 
Redundancy,  197.  i99- 
Reference  books,  14,  157. 

classified,  157,  158. 
References,  cross,  151,  152,  154,  178,  244. 
References  for  additional  reading,  138,  X39, 

165,  230. 
Reflection,  171. 
Religion,  17  2. 
Religious   character  of   eariy   sdiools  in 

America,  23,  24. 
Renaissance,  19. 

Reorganization  of  books,  157,  163,  164. 
Reports,  158. 

Reviews,  84,  128,  129,  145,  234. 
Revolution,  the  American,  193. 
Rhetoric,  19,  117. 
Rhode  Island,  49. 
Rich,    S.    G.,    on    general    mathematics, 

193- 
Rites,  169. 
Rome,  14. 

Rousseau,  on  misuse  of  books,  175. 
Rules,  120,  165. 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  52. 

Scales,  85,  191,  192. 
School  administrator,  74. 
School  books.    See  Textbook. 

early  colonial,  36.. 
Schools,  criticism  of,  39. 

accrediting  of,  9,  10. 
School  subjects.    See  Subject-matter. 

meaning  of ,  170,  171. 
Science,  general,  215-220. 

texts  in,  140,  235. 
Sciences,  139,  150,  152,  160. 
Selection  of  textbooks,  73-82. 
Sentences : 

incomplete,  197. 

short,  84. 

wrong  construction,  199. 
Seven  Liberal  Arts,  16. 
Shakespeare,  43. 
Shirer,  H.  L.,  64. 
Signs  in  algebra,  202. 
SimpsoH,  Mabel,  on  Supervised  Study  in 

American  History,  241-244. 
Skill,  152. 
Slang,  159. 


264 


Index 


Smith,  Dr.  D.  E.,  gg-ioo. 

Smith,  Dr.  Frank  W.,  16. 

Sound,  220. 

South  Carolina,  56. 

South  Dakota,  49. 

Speed  and  accuracy  in  arithmetic,  196. 

Spelling,  158,  160,  196,  197. 

new  list  of  words,  247-256. 
Spelling  books,  24-27. 

Blueback  Speller,  25. 

colonial,  24-27,  37,  38. 

cost  of,  6s,  66. 

standards  for  judging,  110-112,  113. 
State  teachers'  associations,  78. 
Statistical  Bulletins,  158. 
Studying : 

and  reading,  86,  116,  123,  144,  159,  175, 
176,  189,  190. 

conditions  of,  124. 

critical,  188-190. 

habits  of,  106,  124,  188,  189. 

memorizing,    122,    124,   143,    144,   145, 
146. 

methods  of,  122-154,  187,  188,  189. 

reactions  by  pupils,  148-154,  188,  189. 

recall,  128,  129,  143. 

stimulus  to,  174,  175. 

suggestions  by  teacher,  143-148. 

tpxtbooks  as  help  in,  8,  114,  118,  123- 
143- 

training  pupils  in,  123,  161,  204. 
Sturm,  17. 

Style,  84,  114,  120,  179,  181. 
Subject-matter,  44,  67,  114,  132,  144,  168, 
171,  183,  230,  231. 

development  of,  9. 

evaluation  and  adaptation  of,  190,  191. 

in  arithmetic,  7,  15,  31-34,  57,  65,  66, 
160,  188,  194,  196,  197,  200. 

in  geometry,  204-211. 

in  general  science,  215-220. 

in  history,  220-227. 

in  zoology,  214,  215,  216,  217. 
Subtraction  in  algebra,  201. 
Summaries,  128-131,  136-138,  152,  153. 
Superintendent,  76. 
Supervision,  24,  56,  143,  161. 
Supplementary  books,  52,  58,  63,  145,  154? 

158. 
Supplementary  work,  161. 


Synonyms,  159. 
Syntax,  117. 

Tables,  139,  142. 

Table  of  contents,  178,  179,  181,  188,  243. 

Tariff  act  of  1913,  44. 

Taxation,  68. 

Teacher : 

reorganization  of  books  by,  164. 

suggestions  for  study  by,  143-148. 
Teaching,  provisions  for  in  textbooks,  85, 

122-143. 
Tennessee,  56. 

Tennyson's  tribute  to  Virgil,  118. 
Term's  work,  outlining,  238,  239. 
Texas,  49,  56. 
Textbook : 

adaptability  of,  114. 

adoption  of,  80,  81. 

advantages  of,  10. 

age  of,  20. 

appearance  of,  84,  114,  230. 

as  a  guide,  157-165. 

as  a  means  of  interpreting   truth,  183, 
228,  190. 

as  a  source  of  knowledge,  1 67-1 81. 

as  a  tool,  122-154. 

as  an  incentive  or  inspiration,  230-239. 

binding,  120,  181. 

book  reviews,  188,  190. 

care  of,  54,  i53,  i54- 

chapters,  187,  243. 

colonial,  20-40. 

cost  of,  58-61,  65-67,  68. 

course  on,  i,  2. 

disadvantages  of,  4,  5,  53,  54. 

editions,  181. 

eliminations  to  be  made  from,  97. 

free,  48-55,  61-63,  67,  149- 

history  of,  14-40. 

how  begin  to  be  written,  81. 

inadequacy  of,  4. 

in  Germany,  40. 

judging,  73-120. 

kinds,  44-48,  67. 

meaning  of,  43,  44. 

mechanical  make-up,  86,  95,  109,   110, 
114,  120. 

mediaeval,  14-16,  43. 

methods  of  studying,  114. 


Index 


265 


priodples  of  making,  illustrated,  87,  qo, 
91,  loi,  102-104,  115-117,  127,  128, 
129,  130,  131,  132,  133,  136,  137. 
138,  140,  141,  142,  202,  203,  213, 
23s,  237,  238,  240,  241-244. 

problem  for  investigation,  i . 

qualities  of,  83. 

rapid  increase  of,  39. 

Renaissance,  16-20. 

selection  of,  73-82. 

state  uniformity,  63,  64. 

uniform,  52,  55-58. 

why  prominent,  2,  3. 
Twiss,  on  science,  215. 

Underscoring,  149,  150. 
Understanding,  122,  137,  143,  150,   152, 
168,  169. 

"Conduct  of  Understanding,"  123,  175, 
176,  189,  190. 
Uniform  textbooks,  52,  55-58. 

arguments  for  and  against,  56,  57. 
Uniformity,  national,  58. 
Uniformity,  state,  56,  66,  68. 
Unity,  83. 
Utah,  49,  56. 


Vatican,  14. 

Verbs,  197,  198,  199- 

Verification,  150. 

Vermont,  49. 

Virgil,  23,  116,  117,  134. 

Virginia,  56. 

Vocabulary,  119. 

in  foreign  languages,  116. 

in  readers,  108,  109,  119. 
Voice  training  in  readers,  109. 

Washington,  49. 

Wayland's  standards  for  judging  history 

texts,  113,  114. 
Weather,  220. 

Webster,  Noah,  25,  29,  37,  38. 
West  Virginia,  49, 

Wilson,  G.  M.,  on  arithmetic,  195,  ig6. 
Wisconsin,  49,  190,  191. 
World  War,  the,  193. 
Writing  books,  cost  of,  65,  66. 
Wyoming,  49. 

Yearbook,  157,  158. 

Zodlogy,  314,  ai5,  216,  3x7. 


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